The unaided eye can see roundish dark spots on the Moon set in a brighter background. Telescopic observation of these dark spots, called
maria
(plural of
mare
, sea) reveals that they are nearly level terrain sparsely covered with craters. The brighter surroundings or
terrae
are from shadow measurements found to be higher, some 1 to 3 km above the maria. The terra elevations scatter widely, reaching several kilometres in the mountain ranges. The most prominent of these ranges occur as peripheral mountain chains around the near-circular maria. Examples are the Apennines, the Alps, the Carpathians, and the Altai Scarp. These arcuate chains surround the maria as the crater walls surround crater floors, an analogy that can be carried further and implies, apart from scale, a similar origin. This origin is almost certainly impact by massive objects. In the case of the impact maria and pre-mare craters, the source of the objects appear to have been a satellite ring around the Earth through which the Moon swept very early in its history, in its outward journey from its position of origin very near the Earth (Kuiper 1954, 1965). The post-mare craters are presumably mostly asteroidal (and partly cometary) in origin and related to the craters observed by Mariner IV on Mars. The estimated time dependencies of these two crater-forming processes are shown schematically in figure 1. A fuller discussion of this problem has been given elsewhere (Kuiper, Strom & Poole 1966; Kuiper 1966). The higher asteroidal impact rate on Mars, by a factor of about 15, as derived from the Mariner IV records, is interpreted as being due to the greater proximity to the asteroid ring. The numerical factor approximately agrees with theory. Mars apparently lacks the equivalent of the initial excessively intense bombardment of the Moon (attributed to impacts by circumterrestrial bodies); unless, of course, the entire Martian surface has been molten and is directly comparable to the lunar maria. This does not seem probable but can at present not be ruled out; if true, the earliest surface history would have been erased. The nature of the
mare surface
has, during the past decade, been an object of much, perhaps too much, speculation. With the several recent successful lunar reconnaissance missions completed, the older interpretation of the maria as lava beds, based on telescopic observation, has been abundantly confirmed. Four options discussed in recent literature are analysed in Kuiper (1965, §§A, B, pp. 12–39). Among the most potent arguments for the lava cover of the maria are the prominent lava flows observed on Mare Imbrium and Mare Serenitatis, each having a characteristic colour. A map of some Mare Imbrium flows is found in figure 2.
Estimation of bulk permittivity of the Moon’s surface using Lunar Radar Sounder on-board Selenological and Engineering Explorer