Social Support, Everyday Discrimination, and Depressive Symptoms Among Older African Americans: A Longitudinal Study

Abstract Background and Objectives The purpose of the study was to explore the long-term effects of everyday discrimination on depressive symptoms among older African Americans, as well as the moderating role of social support in this association. Research Design and Methods Mixed-effects negative binomial regression analyses were performed on data selected from 6 waves of the Health and Retirement Study (2006–2016; baseline N = 1,144). The number of depressive symptoms was calculated based on an 8-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression measure. Everyday discrimination was measured using a 6-item scale. Contact with and perceived support from extended family and friends were assessed. Results Older African Americans who experienced more frequent perceived discrimination had more depressive symptoms over time. Significant interactions between discrimination and perceived support from extended family and friends were found, indicating that among older African Americans who reported higher support from extended family and friends, perceived discrimination was positively associated with depressive symptoms over time. However, perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms were not longitudinally related among those who reported lower levels of perceived support. Discussion and Implications This is one of the few studies to examine the effects of discrimination on depressive symptoms over time and the first longitudinal study to test the role of social support in coping with discrimination in older African Americans. This study extends cross-sectional works on discrimination and mental health, indicating that experiences of discrimination can result in worse mental health over time. The significant interactions are consistent with the resource mobilization framework, which suggests that individuals who are more negatively affected by discrimination (more depressive symptoms) are more likely to reach out to friends and family to cope with discrimination.

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Social Support from Church and Family Members and Depressive Symptoms Among Older African Americans

American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry ◽

10.1016/j.jagp.2014.04.008 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 23 (6) ◽

pp. 559-567 ◽

Cited By ~ 76

Author(s):

Linda M. Chatters ◽

Robert Joseph Taylor ◽

Amanda Toler Woodward ◽

Emily J. Nicklett

Keyword(s):

Social Support ◽

Depressive Symptoms ◽

African Americans ◽

Family Members ◽

Older African Americans

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Perceived discrimination and mental health among older African Americans: the role of psychological well-being

Aging & Mental Health ◽

10.1080/13607863.2017.1423034 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 23 (4) ◽

pp. 461-469 ◽

Cited By ~ 6

Author(s):

Eunkyung Yoon ◽

Corvell Coburn ◽

Susie A. Spence

Keyword(s):

Mental Health ◽

African Americans ◽

Perceived Discrimination ◽

Well Being ◽

Psychological Well Being ◽

Older African Americans

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Perceived Discrimination and Cognition in Older African Americans

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society ◽

10.1017/s1355617712000628 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 18 (5) ◽

pp. 856-865 ◽

Cited By ~ 47

Author(s):

L.L. Barnes ◽

T.T. Lewis ◽

C.T. Begeny ◽

L. Yu ◽

D.A. Bennett ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Depressive Symptoms ◽

African Americans ◽

Episodic Memory ◽

Test Performance ◽

Perceived Discrimination ◽

Cognitive Test ◽

Perceptual Speed ◽

Physical Health Outcomes ◽

Older African Americans ◽

Cognitive Test Performance

AbstractExisting evidence suggests that psychosocial stress is associated with cognitive impairment in older adults. Perceived discrimination is a persistent stressor in African Americans that has been associated with several adverse mental and physical health outcomes. To our knowledge, the association of discrimination with cognition in older African Americans has not been examined. In a cohort of 407 older African Americans without dementia (mean age = 72.9; SD = 6.4), we found that a higher level of perceived discrimination was related to poorer cognitive test performance, particularly episodic memory (estimate = −0.03; SE = .013; p < .05) and perceptual speed tests (estimate = −0.04; SE = .015; p < .05). The associations were unchanged after adjusting for demographics and vascular risk factors, but were attenuated after adjustment for depressive symptoms (Episodic memory estimate = −0.02; SE = 0.01; Perceptual speed estimate = −0.03; SE = 0.02; both p's = .06). The association between discrimination and several cognitive domains was modified by level of neuroticism. The results suggest that perceived discrimination may be associated with poorer cognitive function, but does not appear to be independent of depressive symptoms. (JINS, 2012, 18, 1–10)

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Life dissatisfaction and eating behaviors among older African Americans: The protective role of social support

The journal of nutrition health & aging ◽

10.1007/s12603-012-0404-6 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 16 (9) ◽

pp. 749-753 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

K. A. S. Wickrama ◽

P. A. Ralston ◽

Catherine Walker O’Neal ◽

J. Z. Ilich ◽

C. M. Harris ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Social Support ◽

African Americans ◽

Eating Behaviors ◽

Protective Role ◽

Life Dissatisfaction ◽

Older African Americans

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The impact of perceived discrimination on depressive symptoms and the role of differentiated social support among immigrant populations in South Korea

International Journal for Equity in Health ◽

10.1186/s12939-019-0910-9 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 18 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Chaelin Karen Ra ◽

Jimi Huh ◽

Brian Karl Finch ◽

Youngtae Cho

Keyword(s):

Social Support ◽

Depressive Symptoms ◽

South Korea ◽

Perceived Discrimination ◽

Immigrant Populations ◽

The Impact

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The Association Between Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms Among Older African Americans: The Role of Psychological and Social Factors

Experimental Aging Research ◽

10.1080/0361073x.2015.978201 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 41 (1) ◽

pp. 1-24 ◽

Cited By ~ 20

Author(s):

Sarah B. Nadimpalli ◽

Bryan D. James ◽

Lei Yu ◽

Fawn Cothran ◽

Lisa L. Barnes

Keyword(s):

Depressive Symptoms ◽

African Americans ◽

Social Factors ◽

Older African Americans

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POWER OF SOCIAL SUPPORT AGAINST DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS OF OLDER AFRICAN AMERICANS

Innovation in Aging ◽

10.1093/geroni/igz038.580 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. S162-S162

Author(s):

Seungjong Cho

Keyword(s):

Social Support ◽

Depressive Symptoms ◽

African Americans ◽

Negative Binomial ◽

Mental Health Problems ◽

Depressive Symptomatology ◽

Negative Binomial Regression ◽

Spousal Support ◽

Negative Binomial Regression Model ◽

Older African Americans

Abstract Depressive symptomatology is one of the most prevalent mental health problems. About 20% of Americans experience depressive symptoms in their lives (Gotlib & Hammen, 2014). Social support, on the other hand, was proved to be a powerful buffer against depressive symptoms of older adults (Kim & Ross, 2009; Sheiman & Meersman, 2004). Few studies have explored this association exclusively among older African Americans who had a culture of powerful social support. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to compare the effects of different sources of social support (from spouse/partner, children, relatives, and friends) against depressive symptoms among older African Americans. This study analyzed the 2014 Health and Retirement Study (HRS; N = 187). Depressive symptomatology was operationalized as a count outcome (number of having symptoms; CES-D8 scale). A negative binomial regression model of depressive symptoms showed that higher levels of spousal support were associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms (coefficient = –.179, p < .001). For each additional score in spousal support, the expected log count of the number of depressive symptoms was decreased by .179. Other sources of social support were not significant predictors of depressive symptoms among older African Americans in this study. Among the covariates, self-rated health (coefficient = .358, p < .001) and household income (logged; coefficient = –.275, p = .014) were significant. The current study supported the results of previous studies showing the power of positive spousal interactions against depressive symptomatology, especially among a nationally representative sample of older African Americans.

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Marital Status and Depressive Symptoms in African Americans: The Moderating Role of Social and Religious Resources

Journal of Family Issues ◽

10.1177/0192513x20942819 ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 0192513X2094281

Author(s):

Beverly Rosa Williams ◽

Randi M. Williams ◽

Eddie M. Clark ◽

Crystal L. Park ◽

Emily Schulz ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Social Support ◽

African American ◽

Depressive Symptoms ◽

African Americans ◽

Marital Status ◽

Statistical Significance ◽

African American Adults ◽

Religious Social Support ◽

Religious Resources

We examined the gendered role of social and religious resources in the association between marital status and depressive symptoms among a national probability sample of predominantly midlife and older African American adults ( N = 800). Greater levels of depressive symptoms were found for unmarried compared to married. A significant three-way interaction between marital status, gender, and resource variable was found only for religious social support. When religious social support was high, married men reported fewer depressive symptoms compared to nonmarried men ( p = .02). In contrast, when religious social support was high, nonmarried women reported fewer depressive symptoms than married women, but these differences only approached statistical significance ( p = .06). The role of religious resources on marital status and depression differed by sex in our sample of African American adults. Understanding these influences may help to address mental health needs of married and unmarried African Americans and suggest a potentially influential role for religious resources.

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