Mechanical Energetics of World Class Cross-Country Skiing

1987 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 353-369 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert W. Norman ◽  
Paavo V. Komi
Keyword(s):  
Mechanical Power ◽  
Large Individual ◽  
Body Segment ◽  
Energy Transfers ◽  
World Class ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
Power Outputs ◽  
Low Energy Transfers ◽  
Elite Skiers

The purpose of this study was to determine whether world class skiers were alike in their mechanical power outputs (normalized for body mass and velocity and called mechanical cost, MTC) and body segment energy transfers when skiing in competition on level and uphill terrain using the diagonal technique. Eleven competitors were analyzed from film taken during a 15-km World Championship race on a level (1.6°) and uphill (9.0°) section of the course. Metabolic rates were estimated from assumptions concerning the efficiencies of positive and negative work and calculations, from the film, of the mechanical power produced by the skiers. The results showed that skiing on the slope was 2.2 times more demanding mechanically than skiing on a level track (MTC of 4.0 vs. 1.8 J • kg−1• m−1, respectively). Skiers who had high MTC had low energy transfers (r = −0.9). Even in this presumably homogeneous group of elite skiers there were large individual differences in MTC and other mechanical variables, suggesting technique problems for some. Furthermore, on flat terrain the estimated metabolic rate was only about 76% of an MV02of 80 ml • kg−1• min−1. This suggests that speed, using the diagonal stride, may be limited by constraints on body segment utilization and not by the physiological energy delivery system of these highly trained athletes.

Differences in Body Segment Energy Utilization between World-Class and Recreational Cross-Country Skiers

1985 ◽  
Vol 1 (3) ◽  
pp. 253-262 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert Norman ◽  
Graham Caldwell ◽  
Paavo Komi
Keyword(s):  
Function Analysis ◽  
Mechanical Energy ◽  
Metabolic Cost ◽  
Step Length ◽  
Energy Utilization ◽  
Body Segment ◽  
Energy Transfers ◽  
World Class ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
Coordinate Data

Differences in the utilization of body segment movements between world-class and recreational cross-country skiers which result in a longer stride of the elite were studied using mechanical energy analyses. Nine world-class racers and six recreational skiers (novices) were filmed, the latter while they executed their fastest possible stable diagonal stride on a level track, and the former during competition. A 15-member linked segment model was digitized, the coordinate data filtered at 4.5 Hz and body segment energy curves; mechanical work output and mechanical energy transfers were calculated using the method described by Pierrynowski, Winter, and Norman (1980). The elite skiers exhibited larger exchanges between potential and kinetic energy in all segments during swing phases and all but the upper arm segment during pushing phases. Step-wise discriminant function analysis showed significant differences in the swinging foot, pushing foot, and pushing shank. The differences appear to be largely attributable to the higher leg swings of the experts, who prolong the glide and enhance step length, probably at a relatively lower metabolic cost by exploiting gravity to augment muscular force by generating pendulum-like movements.

Effects of Three Types of Thought Content Instructions on Skiing Performance

1988 ◽  
Vol 2 (4) ◽  
pp. 283-297 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brent S. Rushall ◽  
Marty Hall ◽  
Laurent Roux ◽  
Jack Sasseville ◽  
Amy C. Rushall
Keyword(s):  
Normal Control ◽  
Standard Test ◽  
Test Track ◽  
Heart Rates ◽  
Thought Control ◽  
Performance Improvements ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
The Cross ◽  
Elite Skiers

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the effects of instructions—to think particular types of thoughts—on the cross-country skiing performances of elite skiers. Eighteen members of the Canadian Cross-Country Ski Team served as subjects. Instructions were given to plan and think particular types of thoughts while skiing, namely task-relevant statements, mood words, and positive self-statements. Performances on a standard test track under thought control conditions were compared to similar efforts under “normal” (control) thinking. Thirteen subjects also recorded heart rates at the completion of each trial. A balanced order design of two replications of each condition was employed in each of the three experiments. Sixteen subjects improved in all conditions whereas two subjects improved in only one condition. Heart rates were marginally higher and statistically significant in each experimental condition compared to the control condition. Performance improvements of more than 3% were registered under each thought content condition, even though all subjects reported that they were not aware of any effort differential. That performance improvements of this magnitude could be achieved in athletes of such a caliber indicates the value of attempts to use the particular forms of thoughts employed in this study for improving cross-country skiing performance.

scholarly journals The Training Characteristics of World-Class Male Long-Distance Cross-Country Skiers

2021 ◽  
Vol 3 ◽  
Author(s):  
Per-Øyvind Torvik ◽  
Guro Strøm Solli ◽  
Øyvind Sandbakk
Keyword(s):  
Endurance Training ◽  
Training Data ◽  
Training Volume ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
High Intensity Training ◽  
Preparation Period ◽  
World Class ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
Speed Training

Purpose: To investigate the training characteristics of world-class long-distance cross-country skiers.Methods: Twelve world-class male long-distance cross-country skiing specialists reported training from their best season, through a questionnaire and follow-up interviews. Training data were systemized by training form (endurance, strength, and speed), intensity [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and exercise mode, followed by a division into different periodization phases. Specific sessions utilized in the various periodization phases were also analyzed.Results: The annual training volume was 861 ± 90 h, consisting of 795 ± 88 h (92%) of endurance training, 53 ± 17 h (6%) of strength training, and 13 ± 14 h (2%) of speed training. A pyramidal (asymptotic) endurance training distribution was employed (i.e., 88.7% LIT, 6.4% MIT, and 4.8% HIT). Out of this, 50–60% of the endurance training was performed with double poling (DP), typically in the form of a daily 3- to 5-h session. A relatively evenly distributed week-to-week periodization of training load was commonly used in the general preparation period, whereas skiers varied between high-load training weeks and competition weeks, with half the training volume and a reduced amount of DP during the competition period.Conclusions: To match the specific demands of long-distance cross-country skiing, specialized long-distance skiers perform relatively long but few training sessions and use a pyramidal intensity distribution pattern and a large amount of training spent using the DP technique.

Peak Age and Relative Performance Progression in International Cross-Country Skiers

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-6
Author(s):  
Jacob Walther ◽  
Roy Mulder ◽  
Dionne A. Noordhof ◽  
Thomas A. Haugen ◽  
Øyvind Sandbakk
Keyword(s):  
Sex Difference ◽  
Goal Setting ◽  
Individual Performance ◽  
Performance Level ◽  
Relative Performance ◽  
Performance Trends ◽  
Top Performers ◽  
World Class ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country

Purpose: To quantify peak age and relative performance progression toward peak age in cross-country skiing according to event type, sex, and athlete performance level. Methods: International Ski Federation (FIS) points (performance expressed relative to the best athlete) of athletes born between 1981 and 1991, competing in junior world championships or finishing top 30 in world championships or Olympics, were downloaded from the FIS website. Individual performance trends were derived by fitting a quadratic curve to each athletes FIS point and age data. Results: Peak age was 26.2 (2.3) years in distance and 26.0 (1.7) years in sprint events. The sex difference in peak age in sprint events was ∼0.8 years (small, P = .001), while there was no significant sex difference in peak age in distance events (P = .668). Top performers displayed higher peak ages than other athletes in distance (mean difference, ±95% confidence limits = 1.6 y, ±0.6 y, moderate, P < .001) and sprint events (1.0, ±0.6 y, moderate, P < .001). FIS point improvement over the 5 years preceding peak age did not differ between event types (P = .325), while men improved more than women in both events (8.8, ±5.4%, small, P = .002 and 7.5, ±6.4%, small, P = .002). Performance level had a large effect on improvement in FIS points in both events (P < .001). Conclusion: This study provides novel insights on peak age and relative performance progression among world-class cross-country skiers and can assist practitioners, sport institutions, and federations with goal setting and evaluating strategies for achieving success.

scholarly journals Energy system contribution during competitive cross-country skiing

2019 ◽  
Vol 119 (8) ◽  
pp. 1675-1690 ◽  
Author(s):  
Thomas Losnegard
Keyword(s):  
Energy System ◽  
Lower Body ◽  
Energy Turnover ◽  
High Speeds ◽  
Class Level ◽  
World Class ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
High Work ◽  
Very High

AbstractEnergy system contribution during cross-country (XC) skiing races is dependent on several factors, including the race duration, track profile, and sub-techniques applied, and their subsequent effects on the use of the upper and lower body. This review provides a scientific synopsis of the interactions of energy system contributions from a physiological, technical, and tactical perspective. On average, the aerobic proportion of the total energy expended during XC skiing competitions is comparable to the values for other sports with similar racing times. However, during both sprint (≤ 1.8 km) and distance races (≥ 10 and 15 km, women and men, respectively) a high aerobic turnover interacts with subsequent periods of very high work rates at ~ 120 to 160% of VO2peak during the uphill sections of the race. The repeated intensity fluctuations are possible due to the nature of skiing, which involves intermittent downhills where skiers can recover. Thus, the combination of high and sustained aerobic energy turnover and repeated work rates above VO2peak, interspersed with short recovery periods, distinguishes XC skiing from most other endurance sports. The substantially increased average speed in races over recent decades, frequent competitions in mass starts and sprints, and the greater importance of short periods at high speeds in various sub-techniques, have demanded changes in the physiological, technical, and tactical abilities needed to achieve world-class level within the specific disciplines.

scholarly journals Comparison of Exclusive Double Poling to Classic Techniques of Cross-country Skiing

2019 ◽  
Vol 51 (4) ◽  
pp. 760-772 ◽  
Author(s):  
THOMAS STÖGGL ◽  
OLLI OHTONEN ◽  
MASAKI TAKEDA ◽  
NAOTO MIYAMOTO ◽  
CORY SNYDER ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Double Poling ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country

scholarly journals Cross country skiing

2004 ◽  
Vol 38 (4) ◽  
pp. 506-506
Author(s):  
P Blackman
Keyword(s):  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country

scholarly journals Near Infrared Spectroscopy for Muscle Specific Analysis of Intensity and Fatigue during Cross-Country Skiing Competition—A Case Report

Sensors ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (7) ◽  
pp. 2535
Author(s):  
Thomas Stöggl ◽  
Dennis-Peter Born
Keyword(s):  
Infrared Spectroscopy ◽  
Near Infrared Spectroscopy ◽  
Exercise Intensity ◽  
Near Infrared ◽  
Whole Body ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Specific Loading ◽  
Cross Country Skiing ◽  
Cross Country ◽  
Muscle Groups

The aims of the study were to assess the robustness and non-reactiveness of wearable near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) technology to monitor exercise intensity during a real race scenario, and to compare oxygenation between muscle groups important for cross-country skiing (XCS). In a single-case study, one former elite XCS (age: 39 years, peak oxygen uptake: 65.6 mL/kg/min) was equipped with four NIRS devices, a high-precision global navigation satellite system (GNSS), and a heart rate (HR) monitor during the Vasaloppet long-distance XCS race. All data were normalized to peak values measured during incremental laboratory roller skiing tests two weeks before the race. HR reflected changes in terrain and intensity, but showed a constant decrease of 0.098 beats per minute from start to finish. Triceps brachii (TRI) muscle oxygen saturation (SmO2) showed an interchangeable pattern with HR and seems to be less affected by drift across the competition (0.027% drop per minute). Additionally, TRI and vastus lateralis (VL) SmO2 revealed specific loading and unloading pattern of XCS in uphill and downhill sections, while rectus abdominus (RA) SmO2 (0.111% drop per minute) reflected fatigue patterns occurring during the race. In conclusion, the present preliminary study shows that NIRS provides a robust and non-reactive method to monitor exercise intensity and fatigue mechanisms when applied in an outdoor real race scenario. As local exercise intensity differed between muscle groups and central exercise intensity (i.e., HR) during whole-body endurance exercise such as XCS, NIRS data measured at various major muscle groups may be used for a more detailed analysis of kinetics of muscle activation and compare involvement of upper body and leg muscles. As TRI SmO2 seemed to be unaffected by central fatigue mechanisms, it may provide an alternative method to HR and GNSS data to monitor exercise intensity.

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