EXPENDITURE ON DRUGS

Pharmaceutical products are relevant for their contribution to the medicine progress and in health peoples improvement, altough this evidence goes back to the forthy years with the reduction in mortality, morbidity and hospitalisation rates. The ambivalence of drugs, both remedy and poison, needs a careful assessment of risks and benefits. Primitive estimates of health treatments evaluation occurred in the human history but the modern concept of evaluation in health care derived from cost-benefit analysis (welfare economics) and technology assessment. Then a new discipline, pharmacoeconomics and outcomes research, developed with the contribution of health economics, clinical medicine, pharmacology, statistics and epidemiology. Pharmaceutical products are also relevant because of their responsability of health expenditure growth. From 1992, in Italy, several legislative actions were made to face up the pharmaceutical expenditure. The most important one (L. 537/1993) achieved the maximum decrease of 16,8%, in 1994, and modified radically the pharmaceutical policy. Nevertheless, in the following six years the pharmaceutical expenditure grew more than 93%. New actions were made fixing the pharmaceutical expenditure to 13% of health expenditure, any excess being charged to Regions. In the new version for the current year, the excesses will be paid-back by pharmaceutical companies (60%) and Regions (40%). Furtherly, the creation of Agenzia Italiana del Farmaco increases the relevance of cost-effectiveness analyses for drugs reimbursement. However, pharmacoeconomic evaluations have still many methodological problems. Economic variables should be treated in the same manner of biomedical or epidemiological data, that is, by confidence intervals and sample sizes. There would be an “economic significance” besides to clinical and statistical ones. In this way, pharmacoeconomics and outcomes research would be able to add rationality to health care expenditure.

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Health Care Expenditure and GDP in African Countries: Evidence from Semiparametric Estimation with Panel Data

The Scientific World JOURNAL ◽

10.1155/2014/905747 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 2014 ◽

pp. 1-6 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Zhike Lv ◽

Huiming Zhu

Keyword(s):

Health Care ◽

Panel Data ◽

Panel Data Analysis ◽

Health Care Expenditure ◽

Large Body ◽

Developed Countries ◽

Infant Mortality Rate ◽

African Countries ◽

Per Capita ◽

The Relationship

A large body of literature studies on the relationship between health care expenditure (HCE) and GDP have been analyzed using data intensively from developed countries, but little is known for other regions. This paper considers a semiparametric panel data analysis for the study of the relationship between per capita HCE and per capita GDP for 42 African countries over the period 1995–2009. We found that infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births has a negative effect on per capita HCE, while the proportion of the population aged 65 is statistically insignificant in African countries. Furthermore, we found that the income elasticity is not constant but varies with income level, and health care is a necessity rather than a luxury for African countries.

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Pharmaceutical expenditure, total health-care expenditure and GDP

Health Economics ◽

10.1002/hec.1317 ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 17 (10) ◽

pp. 1187-1206 ◽

Cited By ~ 25

Author(s):

Jesús Clemente ◽

Carmen Marcuello ◽

Antonio Montañés

Keyword(s):

Health Care ◽

Health Care Expenditure ◽

Pharmaceutical Expenditure ◽

Total Health Care Expenditure

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Causality between Economic Growth and Health Expenditure: A time series analysis from 1996 till 2017 in Albania

WSEAS TRANSACTIONS ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT ◽

10.37394/232015.2020.16.29 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 16 ◽

Keyword(s):

Economic Growth ◽

Health Care ◽

Human Capital ◽

Health Expenditure ◽

Health Care Expenditure ◽

World Health ◽

Development Economic ◽

Causality Test ◽

Per Capita Gdp ◽

Per Capita

-Evidence shows that human capital is a leading driver and one of the most important factors affecting economic development. Economic growth models emphasize the effect that human capital has on the growth and prosperity of a country. The indicators used to measure human capital vary. In this article we will use total health expenditure as a measure for human capital. A healthier population will obviously lead to increased productivity and consequently a higher income for the individual. By increasing public health investments, the workforce will potentially be healthier and consequently human productivity will increase. One of the most important lessons to be learned from the coronavirus pandemic is the importance of investments in health care services, human resources and technical infrastructure for the economy. The aim of this article is to study the relationship between Health Care Expenditure (HCE) per capita and Gross Domestic Product GDP per capita in Albania. The data (in $) is taken from the World Health Organization website, for the time period 1996-2017. The methods used are the ARDL Bounds testing approach for co-integration and the Granger causality test. The main results are: the variables per capita GDP and per capita HCE are not cointegrated. The ARDL(1,1) model estimation points out the positive relationship between the two variables. Also, our study confirms the existence of joint causality between per capita GDP and per capita HCE.

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Exploring the Backyard of nCOVID: Determinants of death toll in pandemics

Asia Pacific Journal of Health Management ◽

10.24083/apjhm.v15i3.409 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 15 (3) ◽

pp. 110-117

Author(s):

Rajesh Gupta ◽

Smita Trivedi

Keyword(s):

Health Care ◽

Population Density ◽

Health Expenditure ◽

Healthcare Expenditure ◽

Health Care Expenditure ◽

Health Impacts ◽

Policy Intervention ◽

The Past ◽

Death Toll ◽

The World

Heterogeneity in number of deaths in different countries during the ongoing nCOVID crisis challenged us to look for determinants of pandemic death toll across the world. Using the past two decades data of pandemic deaths in the world, this study considered if engagement in international trade, health care expenditure and population density have any impact on the pandemic death toll. Using linear regression model controlled for types of disease, we not only found trade significantly impacting death toll, but also surprisingly found positive correlation between share of healthcare expenditure in GDP and fatalities in pandemics. Our findings suggest that policy intervention is required for mitigating health impacts of trade and ‘tweaking’ the health expenditure towards pandemic prevention.

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A Study of Out-of-pocket Health Expenditures

Journal of Health Management ◽

10.1177/0972063416666349 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 18 (4) ◽

pp. 625-637 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Imlak Shaikh ◽

Shabda Singh

Keyword(s):

Health Care ◽

South Asian ◽

Health Expenditure ◽

Health Care Expenditure ◽

Health Care Expenditures ◽

Asian Countries ◽

Household Expenditures ◽

Factors Affecting ◽

Capita Health Expenditure ◽

Per Capita

The aim of this study is to analyze health care expenditures in seven South Asian countries, namely, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Nepal. The data are taken for 19 years from 1995 to 2013. We specifically examine the out-of-pocket health care expenditure in these countries. Per capita health expenditure differences have been compared. We also develop regression model for out-of-pocket expenditure with the factors affecting it, that is, per capita health expenditure, household final consumption expenditure and public health expenditure. Logarithm values of out-of-pocket expenditure have also been used to develop a separate log model for the same. The results suggest that Maldives has the highest per capita health expenditure, while out-of-pocket health expenditure as a percentage of total expenditure on health is the highest for India. The key determinant of out-of-pocket expenditures is the final household expenditures as the percentage of GDP.

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The efficiency of provincial government health care expenditure after China’s new health care reform

PLoS ONE ◽

10.1371/journal.pone.0258274 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 16 (10) ◽

pp. e0258274

Author(s):

Xuesong Guo ◽

Jun Zhang ◽

Zhiwei Xu ◽

Xin Cong ◽

Zhenli Zhu

Keyword(s):

Health Care ◽

Population Density ◽

Health Care Reform ◽

Health Expenditure ◽

Health Care Expenditure ◽

Provincial Government ◽

Per Capita Gdp ◽

Government Health ◽

Medical Reform ◽

Per Capita

Objective We aim to estimate the total factor productivity and analyze factors related to the Chinese government’s health care expenditure in each of its provinces after its implementation of new health care reform in the period after 2009. Materials and methods We use the Malmquist DEA model to measure efficiency and apply the Tobit regression to explore factors that influence the efficiency of government health care expenditure. Data are taken from the China statistics yearbook (2004–2020). Results We find that the average TFP of China’s 31 provincial health care expenditure was lower than 1 in the period 2009–2019. We note that the average TFP was much higher after new health care reform was implemented, and note this in the eastern, central and western regions. But per capita GDP, population density and new health care reform implementation are found to have a statistically significant impact on the technical efficiency of the provincial government’s health care expenditure (P<0.05); meanwhile, region, education, urbanization and per capita provincial government health care expenditure are not found to have a statistically significant impact. Conclusion Although the implementation of the new medical reform has improved the efficiency of the government’s health expenditure, it is remains low in 31 provinces in China. In addition, the government should consider per capita GDP, population density and other factors when coordinating the allocation of health care input. Significance This study systematically analyzes the efficiency and influencing factors of the Chinese government’s health expenditure after it introduced new health care reforms. The results show that China’s new medical reform will help to improve the government’s health expenditure. The Chinese government can continue to adhere to the new medical reform policy, and should pay attention to demographic and economic factors when implementing the policy.

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Association of Demographic and Disability Characteristics With Total PROMISE Expenditure: Wisconsin PROMISE Findings—Brief Report

Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin ◽

10.1177/0034355220980798 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 003435522098079

Author(s):

Emre Umucu ◽

Beatrice Lee ◽

Veronica Estala-Gutierrez ◽

Timothy Tansey

Keyword(s):

Health Care ◽

Cost Effectiveness ◽

Treatment Group ◽

Exploratory Study ◽

Health Care Expenditure ◽

Study Data ◽

Data Set ◽

Youth With Disabilities ◽

Total Health Care Expenditure

The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine whether demographic and disability variables predict total health care expenditure of Wisconsin PROMISE. The findings are intended to assist in promoting cost-effectiveness for future similar initiates. This study data were extracted from Wisconsin PROMISE data set. This study had a total of 1,443 youth with disabilities ( Mage = 14.89). The majority of participants were male (69%). Our results indicated that some demographic and disability–related characteristics are associated with total health care expenditure in control with VR case during PROMISE, control without VR case during PROMISE, and treatment group. Overall, findings of the current study suggest demographic and disability variables do assist in predicting total health care expenditure of Wisconsin PROMISE.

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Aging, health expenditure, proximity to death, and income in Finland

Health Economics Policy and Law ◽

10.1017/s174413310800443x ◽

2008 ◽

Vol 3 (2) ◽

pp. 165-195 ◽

Cited By ~ 42

Author(s):

UNTO HÄKKINEN ◽

PEKKA MARTIKAINEN ◽

ANJA NORO ◽

ELINA NIHTILÄ ◽

MIKKO PELTOLA

Keyword(s):

Health Care ◽

Health Expenditure ◽

Long Term Care ◽

Health Care Expenditure ◽

Term Care ◽

Age And Gender ◽

And Gender ◽

Proximity To Death ◽

Naive Model

AbstractThis study revisits the debate on the ‘red herring’, i.e. the claim that population aging will not have a significant impact on health care expenditure (HCE), using a Finnish data set. We decompose HCE into several components and include both survivors and deceased individuals into the analyses. We also compare the predictions of health expenditure based on a model that takes into account the proximity to death with the predictions of a naïve model, which includes only age and gender and their interactions. We extend our analysis to include income as an explanatory variable. According to our results, total expenditure on health care and care of elderly people increases with age but the relationship is not as clear as is usually assumed when a naïve model is used in health expenditure projections. Among individuals not in long-term care, we found a clear positive relationship between expenditure and age only for health centre and psychiatric inpatient care. In somatic care and prescribed drugs, the expenditure clearly decreased with age among deceased individuals. Our results emphasize that even in the future, health care expenditure might be driven more by changes in the propensity to move into long-term care and medical technology than age and gender alone, as often claimed in public discussion. We do not find any strong positive associations between income and expenditure for most non-LTC categories of health care utilization. Income was positively related to expenditure on prescribed medicines, in which cost-sharing between the state and the individual is relatively high. Overall, our results indicate that the future expenditure is more likely to be determined by health policy actions than inevitable trends in the demographic composition of the population.

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