scholarly journals Leishmanicidal effects of resveratrol and its derivatives: a systematic review and meta-Analysis

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nasrin Amiri Dashatan ◽  
Marzieh Ashrafmansouri ◽  
Mehdi Koushki ◽  
Nayebali Ahmadi
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Publication Bias ◽  
Data Extraction ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Sensitivity Analyses ◽  
Protective Effects ◽  
Random Effects Models ◽  
Important Health ◽  
Mean Differences ◽  
Meta Analyses

Abstract Background Leishmaniasis is one of the most important health problems worldwide. The evidence has suggested that resveratrol and its derivatives have anti-leishmanial effects; however, the results are inconsistent and inconclusive. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of resveratrol and its derivatives on the Leishmania viability through a systematic review and meta-analysis of available relevant studies. Methods The electronic databases PubMed, ScienceDirect, Embase, Web of Science and Scopus were queried between October 2000 and April 2020 using a comprehensive search strategy. The eligible articles selected and data extraction conducted by two reviewers. Mean differences of IC50 (concentration leading to reduction of 50% of Leishmania) for each outcome was calculated using random-effects models. Sensitivity analyses and prespecified subgroup were conducted to evaluate potential heterogeneity and the stability of the pooled results. Publication bias was evaluated using the Egger’s and Begg’s tests. We also followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines for this review. Results Ten studies were included in the meta-analysis. We observed that RSV and its derivatives had significant reducing effects on Leishmania viability in promastigote [24.02 µg/ml; (95% CI 17.1, 30.8); P < 0.05; I2 = 99.8%; P heterogeneity = 0.00] and amastigote [18.3 µg/ml; (95% CI 13.5, 23.2); P < 0.05; I2 = 99.6%; P heterogeneity = 0.00] stages of Leishmania. A significant publication bias was observed in the meta-analysis. Sensitivity analyses showed a similar effect size while reducing the heterogeneity. Subgroup analysis indicated that the pooled effects of leishmanicidal of resveratrol and its derivatives were affected by type of stilbenes and Leishmania species. Conclusions Our findings clearly suggest that the strategies for the treatment of leishmaniasis should be focused on natural products such as RSV and its derivatives. Further study is needed to identify the mechanisms mediating this protective effects of RSV and its derivatives in leishmaniasis.

Effects of the endocrine disruptor vinclozolin in male reproduction: a systematic review and meta-analysis†

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mariana Feijó ◽  
Roberta V L Martins ◽  
Sílvia Socorro ◽  
Luísa Pereira ◽  
Sara Correia
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Publication Bias ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals ◽  
Reproductive Organs ◽  
Male Reproduction ◽  
Mean Differences ◽  
Trim And Fill ◽  
Meta Analyses ◽  
Q Statistic

Abstract Endocrine-disrupting chemicals have become an issue of scientific and public discussion. Vinclozolin (VNZ) is a fungicide that competitively antagonizes the binding of natural androgens to their receptor, disturbing the function of tissues that are sensitive to these hormones, as is the case of the male reproductive organs. A systematic review with meta-analyses of rodent studies was conducted to answer the following question: Does exposure to VNZ affect sperm parameters and testicular/epididymal weight? The methodology was prespecified according to the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews and PRISMA recommendations. Sixteen articles met the inclusion criteria, comprising a total of 1189 animals. The risk of publication bias was assessed using the Trim and Fill adjustment, funnel plot, and Egger regression test. Heterogeneity and inconsistency across the findings were tested using the Q-statistic and I2 of Higgins, respectively. Sensitivity was also analyzed. Statistical analysis was performed on Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software (Version 2.0), using random models and weighted mean differences along with a 95% confidence interval. Sperm motility, counts, daily sperm production (evidence of publication bias), and epididymis weight were decreased in VNZ-treated animals. Exposure length and dose, as well as the time point of exposure, influenced the obtained results. Despite the moderate/high heterogeneity observed, the sensitivity analysis overall demonstrated the robustness of the findings. The quality scores of the included studies were superior to 4 in a total of 9, then classified as good. The obtained data corroborate the capability of VNZ exposure to disrupt spermatogenic output and compromise male fertility.

scholarly journals Altered central and blood glutathione in Alzheimer Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: a meta-analysis

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jinghan J Chen ◽  
Mathura Thiyagarajah ◽  
Jianmeng Song ◽  
Clara Chen ◽  
Nathan Herrmann ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Impairment ◽  
Mild Cognitive Impairment ◽  
Alzheimer Disease ◽  
Publication Bias ◽  
Subgroup Analysis ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Random Effects Models ◽  
Mean Differences ◽  
Meta Analyses

Abstract Background: Increasing evidence implicates oxidative stress (OS) in Alzheimer Disease (AD) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). Depletion of the brain antioxidant glutathione (GSH) may be important in OS-mediated neurodegeneration, though studies of post-mortem brain GSH changes in AD have been inconclusive. Recent in vivo measurements of brain and blood GSH may shed light on GSH changes earlier in the disease.Aim: To quantitatively review in vivo GSH in AD and MCI compared to healthy controls (HC) using meta-analyses. Method: Studies with in vivo brain or blood GSH levels in MCI or AD with a HC group were identified using Medline, PsychInfo, and Embase (1947-June 2020). Standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated for outcomes using random effects models. Outcome measures included brain GSH (Meshcher-Garwood Point Resolved Spectroscopy (MEGA-PRESS) versus non-MEGA-PRESS), and blood GSH (intracellular versus extracellular) in AD and MCI. The Q statistic and Egger’s test were used to assess heterogeneity and risk of publication bias, respectively. Results: For brain GSH, 4 AD (AD=135, HC=223) and 4 MCI (MCI=213, HC=211) studies were included. For blood GSH, 26 AD (AD=1203, HC=1135) and 7 MCI (MCI=434, HC=408) studies were included. Brain GSH overall did not differ in AD or MCI compared to HC; however, the subgroup of studies using MEGA-PRESS reported lower brain GSH in AD (SMD [95%CI] -1.45 [-1.83, -1.06], p<0.001) and MCI (-1.15 [-1.71, -0.59], z=4.0, p<0.001). AD had lower intracellular and extracellular blood GSH overall (-1.10 [-1.58, -0.62], z=4.46, p<0.001). In a subgroup analysis, intracellular GSH was lower in MCI (-0.66 [-1.11, -0.21], p=0.025). Heterogeneity was observed throughout (I2 >85%) and not fully accounted by subgroup analysis. Egger’s test indicated risk of publication bias.Conclusion: Blood intracellular GSH decrease is seen in MCI, while both intra- and extracellular decreases were seen in AD. Brain GSH is decreased in AD and MCI in subgroup analysis. Potential bias and heterogeneity suggest the need for measurement standardization and additional studies to explore sources of heterogeneity.

Triclosan-Coated Sutures Reduce the Risk of Surgical Site Infections: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

2015 ◽  
Vol 36 (2) ◽  
pp. 169-179 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anucha Apisarnthanarak ◽  
Nalini Singh ◽  
Aila Nica Bandong ◽  
Gilbert Madriaga
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Abdominal Surgery ◽  
Random Effects ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Surgical Site Infections ◽  
Sensitivity Analyses ◽  
Publication Type ◽  
Random Effects Models ◽  
Meta Regression ◽  
Meta Analyses

OBJECTIVETo analyze available evidence on the effectiveness of triclosan-coated sutures (TCSs) in reducing the risk of surgical site infection (SSI).DESIGNSystematic review and meta-analysis.METHODSA systematic search of both randomized (RCTs) and nonrandomized (non-RCT) studies was performed on PubMed Medline, OVID, EMBASE, and SCOPUS, without restrictions in language and publication type. Random-effects models were utilized and pooled estimates were reported as the relative risk (RR) ratio with 95% confidence interval (CI). Tests for heterogeneity as well as meta-regression, subgroup, and sensitivity analyses were performed.RESULTSA total of 29 studies (22 RCTs, 7 non-RCTs) were included in the meta-analysis. The overall RR of acquiring an SSI was 0.65 (95% CI: 0.55–0.77; I2=42.4%, P=.01) in favor of TCS use. The pooled RR was particularly lower for the abdominal surgery group (RR: 0.56; 95% CI: 0.41–0.77) and was robust to sensitivity analysis. Meta-regression analysis revealed that study design, in part, may explain heterogeneity (P=.03). The pooled RR subgroup meta-analyses for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and non-RCTs were 0.74 (95% CI: 0.61–0.89) and 0.53 (95% CI: 0.42–0.66), respectively, both of which favored the use of TCSs.CONCLUSIONThe random-effects meta-analysis based on RCTs suggests that TCSs reduced the risk of SSI by 26% among patients undergoing surgery. This effect was particularly evident among those who underwent abdominal surgery.Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015;36(2): 1–11

scholarly journals Evaluation of Wearable Technology in Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

2021 ◽  
Vol 7 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alanna C. Cote ◽  
Riley J. Phelps ◽  
Nina Shaafi Kabiri ◽  
Jaspreet S. Bhangu ◽  
Kevin “Kip” Thomas
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Wearable Technology ◽  
Physiological Data ◽  
Web Searches ◽  
Random Effects Models ◽  
Cochrane Database ◽  
Study Heterogeneity ◽  
Mean Differences ◽  
Meta Analyses

Background: The objective of this analysis was to systematically review studies employing wearable technology in patients with dementia by quantifying differences in digitally captured physiological endpoints.Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis was based on web searches of Cochrane Database, PsycInfo, Pubmed, Embase, and IEEE between October 25–31st, 2017. Observational studies providing physiological data measured by wearable technology on participants with dementia with a mean age ≥50. Data were extracted according to PRISMA guidelines and methodological quality assessed independently using Downs and Black criteria. Standardized mean differences between cases and controls were estimated using random-effects models.Results: Forty-eight studies from 18,456 screened abstracts (Dementia: n = 2,516, Control: n = 1,224) met inclusion criteria for the systematic review. Nineteen of these studies were included in one or multiple meta-analyses (Dementia: n = 617, Control: n = 406). Participants with dementia demonstrated lower levels of daily activity (standardized mean difference (SMD), −1.60; 95% CI, −2.66 to −0.55), decreased sleep efficiency (SMD, −0.52; 95% CI, −0.89 to −0.16), and greater intradaily circadian variability (SMD, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.27 to 0.65) than controls, among other measures. Statistical between-study heterogeneity was observed, possibly due to variation in testing duration, device type or patient setting.Conclusions and Relevance: Digitally captured data using wearable devices revealed that adults with dementia were less active, demonstrated increased fragmentation of their sleep-wake cycle and a loss of typical diurnal variation in circadian rhythm as compared to controls.

Monocyte count in schizophrenia and related disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis

2020 ◽  
Vol 32 (5) ◽  
pp. 229-236
Author(s):  
Mario Gennaro Mazza ◽  
Martina Capellazzi ◽  
Sara Lucchi ◽  
Ilaria Tagliabue ◽  
Aurora Rossetti ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Mononuclear Phagocyte ◽  
Monocyte Count ◽  
Healthy Controls ◽  
Random Effects Models ◽  
Subgroup Analyses ◽  
Study Characteristics ◽  
Mean Differences ◽  
Meta Analyses

AbstractObjective:Increasing evidence suggests that immunological and inflammatory dysfunctions may play an important role in predisposition, onset, and progression of schizophrenia and related psychosis. The activation of cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system, especially microglia and monocytes, has been reported in schizophrenia. We carried out this systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate if there are significant differences in monocyte count comparing healthy controls with people suffering from schizophrenia and related disorders.Methods:We searched main electronic databases; nine records met all our criteria and were included in the meta-analysis. Meta-analyses based on random effects models have been carried out generating pooled standardised mean differences (SMDs) of monocyte count in peripheral blood between schizophrenia and related psychosis and healthy controls. Heterogeneity was estimated. Relevant sensitivity and subgroup analyses were conducted.Results:Patients showed higher monocyte count as compared with healthy control (SMD = 0.393; p = 0.001). Heterogeneity across studies was from moderate to high (I2 = 65.952%); sensitivity analysis leaving out two studies responsible for most of the heterogeneity showed a slightly higher SMD. Subgroup analyses confirmed this result, showing no significant differences in the effect size across different study characteristics.Conclusions:Monocyte count can be considered an indirect marker of microglia activation in the central nervous system. Thus, the observed higher monocyte count in patients could be considered as a possible peripheral marker of microgliaʼs activation in schizophrenia disorder.

Association of Thyroid Hormone Therapy with Mortality in Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

2020 ◽  
Vol 106 (1) ◽  
pp. 292-303
Author(s):  
Carol Chiung-Hui Peng ◽  
Huei-Kai Huang ◽  
Brian Bo-Chang Wu ◽  
Rachel Huai-En Chang ◽  
Yu-Kang Tu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Older Adults ◽  
Thyroid Hormone ◽  
Hormone Therapy ◽  
Subclinical Hypothyroidism ◽  
Data Extraction ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Protective Effects ◽  
Random Effects Models ◽  
Meta Analyses ◽  
The Impact

Abstract Context Benefits of thyroid hormone therapy on mortality in adults with subclinical hypothyroidism remain undetermined. Objective To summarize the impact of thyroid hormone therapy on mortality in adults with subclinical hypothyroidism. Data Sources PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Clinicaltrials.gov from inception until April 25, 2020. Study Selection Studies comparing the effect of thyroid hormone therapy with that of placebo or no therapy in adults with subclinical hypothyroidism on all-cause and/or cardiovascular mortality. Data Extraction Two reviewers independently extracted data and performed quality assessments. Random-effects models for meta-analyses were used. Data Synthesis Five observational studies and 2 randomized controlled trials with 21 055 adults were included. Overall, thyroid hormone therapy was not significantly associated with all-cause (pooled relative risk [RR] = 0.95, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.75-1.22, P = .704) or cardiovascular (pooled RR = 0.99, 95% CI: 0.82-1.20, P = .946) mortality. Subgroup analyses revealed that in younger adults (aged &lt;65-70 years), thyroid hormone therapy was significantly associated with a lower all-cause (pooled RR = 0.50, 95% CI: 0.29-0.85, P = .011) and cardiovascular (pooled RR = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.37-0.80, P = .002) mortality. However, no significant association between thyroid hormone therapy and mortality was observed in older adults (aged ≥65-70 years). Conclusions Use of thyroid hormone therapy does not provide protective effects on mortality in older adults with subclinical hypothyroidism. However, thyroid hormone therapy for subclinical hypothyroidism may show benefits on morality in adults aged &lt;65 to 70 years.

scholarly journals Effect of somatometric parameters on the prevalence and severity of varicocele: a systematic review and meta-analysis

2021 ◽  
Vol 19 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Runqing Li ◽  
Junjie Liu ◽  
Yushan Li ◽  
Quanxian Wang
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Cochrane Library ◽  
China National Knowledge Infrastructure ◽  
Random Effects Models ◽  
Knowledge Infrastructure ◽  
Regression Test ◽  
Mean Differences ◽  
Q Statistic ◽  
The Relationship

Abstract Background Published studies have shown contradictory results regarding the relationship between somatometric parameters and varicoceles. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the possible effects of age, height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) on the presence and severity of varicoceles. Methods Databases including EMBASE, MEDLINE, PubMed, Cochrane Library, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Web of Science, and Google Scholar were systematically searched to identify relevant articles published up to March 2020. Two researchers independently identified eligible articles and extracted data. Cochran’s Q statistic and I2 statistics were used to assess heterogeneity. Meta-analysis was performed using StataSE 12.0 software (StataCorp LP, USA). Random-effects models were used to obtain the weighted mean differences (WMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Publication bias was assessed using Begg’s funnel plot and Egger’s regression test. Results The search strategy produced 272 articles, of which 18 articles were eligible according to the inclusion/exclusion criteria. A total of 56,325 patients with varicocele and 1,334,694 patients without varicocele were included in the meta-analysis to evaluate the effect of somatometric parameters on the presence and severity of varicocele. The overall results demonstrated that the presence of varicoceles was significantly associated with height (WMD = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.07 to 1.74, P < 0.001) and inversely correlated with BMI (WMD = − 1.35, 95% CI = -1.67 to − 1.03, P < 0.001) but not with age (WMD = -0.93, 95% CI = -2.19 to 0.33, P = 0.149) or weight (WMD = 0.24, 95% CI = -2.24 to 2.72, P = 0.850). The severity of varicocele was inversely correlated with increased BMI but not with age. Conclusion The presence of varicoceles was significantly associated with height and inversely correlated with BMI.

The Associations of Plasma/Serum Carotenoids with Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-12
Author(s):  
Mingyue Qu ◽  
Hanxu Shi ◽  
Kai Wang ◽  
Xinggang Wang ◽  
Nan Yu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Alzheimer’S Disease ◽  
Alzheimer's Disease ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Scoring Systems ◽  
Serum Levels ◽  
Epidemiological Studies ◽  
Pooled Analysis ◽  
Protective Effects ◽  
Mean Differences

Background: Multiple lines of evidence indicate protective effects of carotenoids in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). However, previous epidemiological studies reported inconsistent results regarding the associations between carotenoids levels and the risk of AD. Objective: Our study aims to evaluate the associations of six major members of carotenoids with the occurrence of AD by conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive literature search of PubMed, Web of Science, Ebsco, and PsycINFO databases was conducted, and the quality of each included studies was evaluated by a validated scoring systems. Standardized mean differences (SMD) with 95%confidence intervals (CI) were determined by using a random effects model. Heterogeneity was evaluated by I2 statistics. Publication bias was detected using funnel plots and Egger’s test. Results: Sixteen studies, with 10,633 participants were included. Pooled analysis showed significantly lower plasma/serum levels of lutein (SMD = –0.86, 95%CI: –1.67 to –0.05, p = 0.04) and zeaxanthin (SMD = –0.59; 95%CI: –1.12 to –0.06, p = 0.03) in patients with AD versus cognitively intact controls, while α-carotene (SMD = 0.21, 95%CI: –0.68 to 0.26, p = 0.39), β-carotene (SMD = 0.04, 95%CI: –0.57 to 0.65, p = 0.9), lycopene (SMD = –0.12, 95%CI: –0.96 to 0.72, p = 0.78), and β-cryptoxanthin (SMD = –0.09, 95%CI: –0.83 to 0.65, p = 0.81) did not achieve significant differences. Conclusion: Of six major members of carotenoids, only lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in plasma/serum were inversely related to the risk of AD. More high-quality longitudinal studies are needed to verify these findings.

scholarly journals Risk of dementia in gout and hyperuricaemia: a meta-analysis of cohort studies

BMJ Open ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (6) ◽  
pp. e041680
Author(s):  
Shu-Yue Pan ◽  
Rui-Juan Cheng ◽  
Zi-Jing Xia ◽  
Qiu-Ping Zhang ◽  
Yi Liu
Keyword(s):  
Cohort Studies ◽  
Quality Assessment ◽  
Publication Bias ◽  
Data Extraction ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Sensitivity Analyses ◽  
Cochrane Library ◽  
Crystal Formation ◽  
Medical Subject Headings ◽  
Eligibility Criteria

ObjectivesGout, characterised by hyperuricaemia with monosodium urate crystal formation and inflammation, is the most common inflammatory arthritis in adults. Recent studies have found that elevated uric acid levels are related to the occurrence of dementia. We conducted a study to investigate the association between dementia and gout or hyperuricaemia.DesignSystematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies.Data sourcesStudies were screened from inception to 28 June 2019 by searching Medline, Embase and the Cochrane Library databases.Eligibility criteriaCohort studies comparing the risk of dementia in patients with gout and hyperuricaemia versus non-gout and non-hyperuricaemia controls were enrolled.Data extraction and analysisTwo reviewers separately selected studies and extracted data using the Medical Subject Headings without restriction on languages or countries. The adjusted HRs were pooled using the DerSimonian and Laird random effects model. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to evaluate the stability of the results. Publication bias was evaluated using Egger’s and Begg’s tests. Quality assessment was performed according to the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.ResultsFour cohort studies that met the inclusion criteria were included in our meta-analysis. We found that gout and hyperuricaemia did not increase the risk of dementia, with a pooled HR of 0.94 (95% CI 0.69 to 1.28), but might decrease the risk of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), with a pooled HR of 0.78 (95% CI 0.64 to 0.95). There was little evidence of publication bias. Quality assessment of the included studies was high (range: 6–8 points).ConclusionsOur study shows that gout and hyperuricaemia do not increase the risk of dementia. However, gout and hyperuricaemia might have a protective effect against AD. Due to the limited number of research articles, more investigations are needed to demonstrate the potential relationship between dementia and gout or hyperuricaemia.

scholarly journals Toxoplasma gondii Infection and Clinical Characteristics of Patients With Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

2020 ◽  
Vol 1 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Arjen L Sutterland ◽  
David A Mounir ◽  
Juul J Ribbens ◽  
Bouke Kuiper ◽  
Tom van Gool ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Toxoplasma Gondii ◽  
Publication Bias ◽  
Clinical Characteristics ◽  
Negative Symptoms ◽  
Age Of Onset ◽  
Meta Analysis ◽  
Random Effects Models ◽  
Duration Of Illness ◽  
Toxoplasma Gondii Infection

Abstract Schizophrenia is associated with an increased prevalence of IgG antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii seropositivity), whereby the infection seems to precede the disorder. However, it remains unclear whether a T. gondii infection affects clinical characteristics of schizophrenia. Therefore, a systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted following PRISMA guidelines examining the association between T. gondii seropositivity and severity of total, positive, or negative symptoms or age of onset in schizophrenia. PubMed, Embase, and PsycInfo were systematically searched up to June 23, 2019 (PROSPERO #CRD42018087766). Random-effects models were used for analysis. Furthermore, the influence of potential moderators was analyzed. Indications for publication bias were examined. From a total of 934 reports, 13 studies were included. No overall effect on severity of total, positive, or negative symptoms was found. However, in patients with a shorter duration of illness T. gondii seropositivity was associated with more severe positive symptoms (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.32; P &lt; .001). Similar but smaller effects were seen for total symptoms, while it was absent for negative symptoms. Additionally, a significantly higher age of onset was found in those with T. gondii seropositivity (1.8 y, P = .015), although this last finding was probably influenced by publication bias and study quality. Taken together, these findings indicate that T. gondii infection has a modest effect on the severity of positive and total symptoms in schizophrenia among those in the early stages of the disorder. This supports the hypothesis that T. gondii infection is causally related to schizophrenia, although more research remains necessary.

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