scholarly journals On Qualification of the Phenomenon of Hybridism of the Use of Force and the Problem of Interference in Internal Affairs of a State

2022 ◽  
pp. 33-47
Author(s):  
S. V. Korostelev

The purpose of this article is to eliminate methodological discrepancies in the definition of the problem of “hybrid” use of force and the possibility of using this construct when interfering in the internal affairs of states. In any conflict situation, the behavior of states in moving towards their national goals can be explained through how they do combine and synchronize (as it is often defined at the present time — «hybrid») the use of means of compellence and coercion available to them. In general, conceptually «hybrid war» can be described as “the synchronized use of multiple instruments of national power, specially selected to obtain mutually reinforcing effects on specific vulnerabilities across the entire spectrum of social processes. The substance of the modern security environment has led to an increase in the number of areas of conflict of interests of actors, the complexity and dynamism of conflicts, and the unpredictability of their outcomes. The formation of the practice of attribution of international responsibility, and the development of the international institutions supporting it, took place gradually and, ultimately, led to such a development of the international security environment, which made an appeal to «hybridity» to promote national interests in the process of political competition of social groups or individuals with divergent interests for power inevitable. The problem of terminology is one of the main obstacles to a clear understanding of the operation of the «hybridity» construct in political competition. The active use of the definition «hybrid» by propaganda in combination with the terms «war», «threats», «hostilities in the gray zone», «operations», «tactics», «competition does not turn into a state of war» political discourse, since these terms are almost never linked to the definition of the desired state of international relations by the state leadership. And if we are talking about the outcome of the collision of interests of actors in competition or conflict, then this desired result is «historically» defined by the term «victory». Thus, the definition of the substance of «victory» is a necessary initial point to onset analyzing the possibilities of turning to any of the instruments of national power in a «hybrid» confrontation.

2019 ◽  
Vol 19 (3) ◽  
pp. 420-431 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alexandra Victorovna Khudaykulova

The need to protect citizens and investments abroad is placing tremendous pressure on China’s traditional foreign policy strategy and noninterference principle. Instability in most of BRI countries form new security conditions, pushing China to be more flexible in engaging in missions it had previously opposed, including political engagement in intrastate conflicts in the developing world. Following the formula “politics is a big economy”, China starts rethinking its security interests. As a result, China has smoothly adopted the transition strategy from non-intervention into internal affairs to a more proactive non-indifference approach, that Chinese academics are describing as “creative” or “constructive” engagement. Many new elements contribute to this new constructive engagement - conceptual narrative, political support, geopolitical competition, growing capacities and new security conditions. The key point of the article is to analyze China’s strategy in defending national interests overseas, including the rescue and peacekeeping operations, mediation, political envoys, etc. The special focus is done on proactive peacekeeping policy of China and its new role in the security environment. Obviously, in future China will follow implementing the overseas missions, including humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, evacuation operations, defense of sea lanes, stabilization operations, peacekeeping and counterterrorism missions. After launching in 2017 its first overseas military base in Djibouti, there is little evidence to predict that in the near future China intends to construct more bases. But nevertheless the geopolitical rivalry with the United States might push China to convert three deep-water ports - Gwadar (Pakistan), Salalah (Oman), and Seychelles ports into naval bases. The degree of the China’s involvement in global security landscape will depend on the level of its responsibility, since Beijing is undergoing through a higher degree of international pressure in order to take more obligations. Responding to overseas security crises through military actions would be mostly shaped by events (case-by-case approach), inspired by political motivations and organized as small-scale and low-intensity missions.


Author(s):  
Artour L. Demtchouk

Both domestic and foreign policies of each state presuppose a certain ideology as a foundation. In a broad sense, an ideology may be regarded as a certain 'system of coordinates,' an interpretational model of the world (Weltanschauung) including both empirico-theoretical (realizing a nation's place in regional and global contexts, with a clear understanding of national interests, goals and resources) and metatheoretical (comprehending a nation in the context of human history and culture) levels. Some of the main issues on the agenda in Russia are the clear understanding and definition of national goals and interests, the formulation of a strategy of development in economic, social, political, etc., arenas, and the establishment of both domestic and foreign policy. I suggest that Russia currently does not have an ideology or a system of values able to unite the society. In short, I argue that Russia needs a new strategy of development, a new national idea which can replace (or fill the vacuum left by the collapse of) the old communist ideology.


2021 ◽  
Vol 59 (1) ◽  
pp. 89-113
Author(s):  
Triantafyllos Kouloufakos

Defined as ‘a domain characterized by the use of electronics and the electromagnetic spectrum to store, modify, and exchange data via networked systems and associated physical infrastructures’ cyberspace is created by people for the people. However, this is not always the case. Cyber operations conducted by states may amount to the use of force. The opinions, though, regarding the threshold that must be reached differ, and there are diverse theories on when a cyber operation constitutes the use of force. Furthermore, there are cases of operations that despite not reaching the threshold of use, fall under the definition of threat of force, under Article 2(4) of the UN Charter. Finally, cyber operations that fail to reach the threshold may still be contrary to international law, constituting a prohibited intervention in the internal affairs of another state. Le cyberespace, défini comme « un domaine caractérisé par l’usage de l’électronique et du spectre électromagnétique pour stocker, modifier et échanger des données via des systèmes en réseaux et les structures physiques qui y sont attachées », est créé par des gens et pour les gens. Ce n’est pourtant pas toujours le cas. Des cyberopérations menées par des États peuvent représenter un emploi de la force. Mais les avis divergent quant au seuil devant être atteint, et les théories pour déterminer quand une cyberopération constitue un emploi de la force sont diverses. En outre, il existe des cas d’opérations qui n’atteignent pas ce seuil, mais qui relèvent pourtant de la définition de menace de la force, au sens de l’article 2(4) de la Charte des Nations unies. Enfin, des cyberopérations n’atteignant pas ce seuil peuvent néanmoins être contraires au droit international, en ce qu’elles constituent une intervention interdite dans les affaires intérieures d’un autre État. Omschreven als ‘een domein dat wordt gekenmerkt door het gebruik van elektronica en het elektromagnetische spectrum om gegevens op te slaan, te wijzigen en uit te wisselen via netwerksystemen en bijbehorende fysieke infrastructuren’ komt cyberspace tot stand door en voor mensen. Dat is echter niet altijd het geval. Cyberoperaties geleid door staten kunnen neerkomen op het gebruik van geweld. Over de drempel die bereikt moet worden lopen de meningen echter uiteen, en er zijn verschillende theorieën om te bepalen wanneer bij een cyberoperatie sprake is van gebruik van geweld. Verder zijn er gevallen van operaties die, ook al wordt de drempel van geweldgebruik niet bereikt, onder de definitie van bedreiging met geweld vallen, zoals bedoeld in artikel 2, lid 4, van het VN-Handvest. Ten slotte kunnen cyberoperaties die de drempel niet bereiken, nog steeds in strijd zijn met het internationaal recht en gelijkstaan aan een verboden interventie in de interne aangelegenheden van een andere staat. Definido como ‘un dominio caracterizado por el uso de la electrónica y el espectro electromagnético para almacenar, modificar e intercambiar datos a través de sistemas en red e infraestructuras físicas asociadas’, el ciberespacio es creado por personas para las personas. Sin embargo, no siempre ocurre así. Las operaciones cibernéticas realizadas por los Estados pueden equivaler al uso de la fuerza. No obstante, las opiniones sobre el umbral que se debe alcanzar difieren, existiendo diversas teorías sobre cuándo una ciber-operación constituye uso de la fuerza. Además, existen casos de operaciones que, a pesar de no alcanzar el umbral de uso propiamente dicho, entran sin embargo dentro de la definición de amenaza de uso de la fuerza, según el artículo 2 (4) de la Carta de la ONU. Finalmente, las operaciones cibernéticas que no alcanzan dicho umbral pueden, no obstante, seguir siendo contrarias al Derecho Internacional, constituyendo una intervención prohibida en los asuntos internos de otro Estado. Definito come ‘un dominio caratterizzato dall'uso dell'elettronica e dello spettro elettromagnetico per memorizzare, modificare e scambiare dati tramite sistemi in rete e infrastrutture fisiche associate’ il cyberspazio è creato dalle persone per le persone. Tuttavia, non è sempre così. Le operazioni cyber condotte dagli Stati possono equivalere all'uso della forza. Le opinioni, tuttavia, per quanto riguarda la soglia che deve essere oltrepassata sono diverse e ci sono differenti teorie su quando un'operazione cyber costituisca uso della forza. Inoltre, ci sono casi di operazioni che, pur non raggiungendo la soglia di utilizzo, rientrano nella definizione di minaccia all’uso della forza, ai sensi dell'articolo 2, paragrafo 4, della Carta delle Nazioni Unite. Infine, le operazioni cibernetiche che non raggiungono la soglia possono tuttavia essere contrarie al diritto internazionale, costituendo un intervento vietato negli affari interni di un altro Stato. Der Cyberspace, der definiert wird als ‘ein Bereich, gekennzeichnet durch den Gebrauch der Elektronik und des elektromagnetischen Spektrums, um Daten über vernetzte Systeme und dazugehörige physische Infrastrukturen zu speichern, zu ändern und auszutauschen’, wird von Menschen für Menschen geschaffen. Dies ist allerdings nicht immer der Fall. Cyberoperationen, die von Staaten durchgeführt werden, können der Anwendung von Gewalt gleichkommen. Allerdings gehen die Meinungen über die zu erreichende Schwelle auseinander, und es gibt verschiedene Theorien zur Frage, wann eine Cyberoperation die Anwendung von Gewalt ausmacht. Außerdem gibt es Fälle von Operationen, die als Androhung von Gewalt im Sinne von Artikel Volume 2 (Issue 4) der Charta der Vereinten Nationen bezeichnet werden können, und dies obwohl die Schwelle der Gewaltanwendung nicht erreicht wird. Schließlich können Cyberoperationen, die die Schwelle nicht erreichen, trotzdem gegen das Völkerrecht verstoßen, und somit ein verbotenes Eingreifen in die inneren Angelegenheiten eines anderen Staates darstellen.


2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher Herrmann ◽  

In today’s world of manufacturing, R&D, and testing across diverse industries, the definition of Metrology and calibration has taken on new meanings, whether it is right or wrong. With the evolving requirements for defining traceability, which is impacted through ISO/IEC 17025: 2017 as well as the NIST’s definition of Metrological Traceability, we must step back and truly understand what the differences are between these 2 terms. In this paper, we will evaluate the definitions of Metrology and calibration. We will also look at the importance of each and how one affects the other. While both terms are important, as liaisons within the Science of Measurement, we need to be able to articulate the differences between both terms to assist in bringing the representatives working in various industries to a clear understanding of how calibration is an action within the world of Metrology.


2018 ◽  
pp. 722-732
Author(s):  
Serhii Zdioruk

The essence and need for the establishment of the Ukrainian Local Orthodox Church are revealed. It shows a direct correlation between the assertion of independence of Ukrainian Orthodoxy from the Moscow Patriarchate and the consolidation of Ukrainian society and the strengthening of national security of Ukraine. A dangerous challenge for the Ukrainian people is that we were forced to realize our ethno-religious identity not through world structures (the Vatican, the Ecumenical Patriarchate, and so on), but through Russian Orthodox fundamentalism, obscurantism, and primitive rite of passage, as a result of the inadequate policy of our guides for decades after the restoration of state independence. The article shows the threats to the national interests and national security of the state created by the activities of the Moscow Patriarchate in Ukraine. Russia now considers the use of inter-Orthodox relations as one of the effective mechanisms against the consolidation of the Ukrainian people for the approval of the Ukrainian local Orthodox Church. It is stated that as a result of the deconsolidation of the Ukrainian Orthodox community, Ukraine will lose the potential of Ukrainian citizens. It is noted that the assertion of the Ukrainian local Orthodox Church is equal to the establishment of the national Church, regardless of other foreign religious centres. The recommendations suggest measures, in particular legislative ones, for the democratic settlement of public-religious and state-Church relations in order to consolidate Ukrainian society. They should help ensure the realization of the national interests of the Ukrainian people in the conditions of modern Russian aggression. Keywords: Ukrainian Local Orthodox Church, national interests of Ukraine, Russian aggression, hybrid war, establishment, international religious relations.


2020 ◽  
pp. 170-191
Author(s):  
Serhij Zdioruk

The article analyzes the problems of political and religious influence of Russia on the formation of the Ukrainian state in historical retrospect and in modern conditions of hybrid war. Europe wants to see the civilized Ukraine, based on the primacy of law, sustainable development, values of democracy and freedom for all citizens without exception. It is not only about political and economic aspects, but also about spiritual and cultural ones. Constituting the Local Ukrainian Orthodox Church is a powerful spiritual and ideological pillar of the Ukrainian State in building a democratic society, strengthening its image in the world. With the above in view and under the described situation the issue of fast integration of Ukraine into the European and world community becomes more urgent. Religion plays a significant role in this process, which is so important to regulate by the legislation. Thus we see the need for continued reform of the Ukrainian legal system starting from the fundamental political system governed by the Constitution of Ukraine, electoral laws and in particular the body of laws governing the fundamental rights and freedoms of the citizens of Ukraine. The article suggests some high priority measures aimed on creation of conditions for realization of integrative opportunities of religious factors. The proposals provide concrete and effective tools, the implementation of which is aimed at neutralizing the threats of «russkiy mir» in Ukrainian society and formulates recommendations for effective organization of political and legal mechanisms to protect national interests and strengthen national security of Ukraine.


2021 ◽  
Vol 1 (72) ◽  
pp. 145-161
Author(s):  
Alexandru STOICA

The exercise of national power by each state is an accepted reality of international relations. Its individual power and distribution is one of the major determinants of a state'sbehaviour in international relations. However, the unlimited use of power by states can be a source of war, anarchy and chaos in international relations. State power, its estimates and measurement tools have always been a matter of interest to political and military leaders, who needed fairly objective parameters to make decisions with fundamental implications for the evolution and behaviour of states in the system of international relations. These issues of state power are the focus of this article.Keywords: power, elements of power, determinants of power, national interests, international relations, quantification of state power.


Author(s):  
Aleksandr Molchanov ◽  
Elizaveta Zaytseva

The article is devoted to the study of the grounds for initiation of service-related objects of patent law in the system of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs of Russia. The authors define the conditions necessary for the recognition of the service-related character of an invention, utility model, or industrial design. This is especially important for the correct definition of the legal regime of the created results and the application of legal consequences to the relations arising between the subjects. The purpose of the work is to analyse the grounds for initiation of service-related objects in the system of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs of Russia. As a result of the study, the legal relationships between the subjects of patent law in the system of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs of Russia, the grounds for their occurrence and the specifics are analysed, the question of the relationships between the moment of creation of the service-related product and the period of validity of the working contract between the author and the employer are determined, the procedure of distributing intellectual rights to service-related products, including those created as a result of the joint creative activity of several persons are clarified, other conditions and criteria for vesting an invention, utility model, industrial design with a service-related character are determined. As a separate basis, a civil law contract is highlighted, which has essential importance in the implementation of service-related objects of patent law in the system of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs of Russia. The analysis of legal norms revealed the lack of the legally fixed list of the grounds for the initiation of service-related objects of patent law, and therefore a number of controversial issues arising in practice require additional clarification.


Author(s):  
Volodymyr Smolianiuk ◽  
Mykola Balan

The purpose of the article. Identify the nature of challenges, threats, dangers and risks as destructive factors of social, man-made and natural origin; to prove the priority of the category “threat” as a kind of risk in the domestic legislation on national security; to argue the thesis about Ukraine’s belonging to “risk societies”; point to the further complication of the process of producing various threats and challenges against the state and society. Scientific novelty. Based on the use of the current legal framework of Ukraine on national security, the existence of a process of continuous accumulation of risks in key areas of the state and the transformation of Ukrainian society on this basis into a “society of risk” is proved. Emphasis is placed on accelerating this process in the context of the hybrid war launched by Russia against Ukraine in 2014. Social development dictates the need for a clear verbal designation of destructive factors against the interests of the majority (national interests). The terms describing their likely or real impact on society were “challenges”, “threats”, “dangers” and “risks”. The natural step of their substantive definition and meaningful filling was their implementation in the conceptual and categorical apparatus of national security theory. In a broad sense, national security is proposed to be considered a state of protection of national interests and values, both from challenges, threats and dangers, and risks. The most widely used term in Ukraine’s socio-political realities is the “threat” that is widely represented in national legislation on national security. The total number of threats in modern Ukraine is steadily increasing. According to Western analytical developments, the excessive spread of threats in basic social spheres (economic, political, social, spiritual, cultural, etc.) gives reason to qualify Ukraine as a “risk society”. The situation is complicated by the hybrid war being waged by the Russian Federation against Ukraine and other democratic countries. It is advisable to present the modern hostilities initiated by Russia as a process of continuous production of threats (risks), the total effect of which should be the destruction of the Ukrainian statehood. In such circumstances, Ukraine should accelerate the process of development (updating) and practical implementation of key strategic documents – the National Security Strategy, the Military Security Strategy, the Cyber Security Strategy, the Public Security and Civil Defense Strategy, the Strategy for the Development of the Defense Industrial Complex. But for the time being, such documents are either substantially outdated or missing at all. Conclusions. Society, based on its complex nature, built on unity and the struggle of opposites, feels the constant impact of challenges, threats and dangers (risks), which it generates. There are no unified and generally accepted interpretations of challenges, threats, dangers and risks. Each country offers its own formats of their interaction and mutual transformation. The most widely used of these are “threats” (Ukraine) and “risks” (Western countries). The total number of risks in which Ukraine is directly or indirectly involved is steadily progressing. Accordingly, modern Ukraine is a clearly defined “society of risks.” Under the pressure of numerous challenges, threats and dangers, Ukraine as a “society of risks” abandons the unambiguous (linear) formulation of threats to national security inherent in specific public spheres, and their legislative consolidation. The state provides for the preparation and periodic updating of a number of strategies (national security, military security, cybersecurity, other documents), which should contain a list of major threats that currently exist in state and social development. Key words: challenge, threat, danger, risk, national security, hybridization of threats, risk society.


Author(s):  
O.A. Kolotkina ◽  

The article deals with the issues related to the definition of the essence, role and meaning of legal definitions in the regulatory legal regulation of national security. The author emphasizes the uniqueness of the phenomenon of national security, which acts as a guarantor of ensuring the national interests of the state, society, and the individual and as a basis for the unhindered implementation of the strategic national priorities of the state. It is possible to ensure these interests and implement strategic priorities by creating an effective legal regulation that includes various legal means, as well as regulatory requirements. An important role in the regulatory legal regulation is played by legal definitions, which contain definitions of concepts that act as integral elements of the legal basis for ensuring national security. It is indicated that legal definitions of concepts are generally binding and contribute to the formation of a single legal space. It is stated that the current Federal Law «On Security» does not contain a legislative definition of key concepts in the field of national security. The article raises the problem of unification of the conceptual and categorical apparatus in the field of ensuring national security, through the adoption of fundamental documents of strategic planning. The author attempts to evaluate the legal definitions in the field under consideration in terms of their universality and industry affiliation, the problems of the completeness of their textual expression, as well as the state policy implemented in the field of national security. The author proposes the formulation of the concept «national security», which could become the basis for adjusting the legal definitions of certain types of national security, enshrined in legislative acts and strategic planning documents. The functions of legal definitions in the regulatory legal regulation of national security are identified and disclosed.


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