Predictors of Retest Effects in a Longitudinal Study of Cognitive Aging in a Diverse Community-Based Sample

AbstractBetter performance due to repeated testing can bias long-term trajectories of cognitive aging and correlates of change. We examined whether retest effects differ as a function of individual differences pertinent to cognitive aging: race/ethnicity, age, sex, language, years of education, literacy, and dementia risk factors including apolipoprotein E ε4 status, baseline cognitive performance, and cardiovascular risk. We used data from the Washington Heights-Inwood Columbia Aging Project, a community-based cohort of older adults (n=4073). We modeled cognitive change and retest effects in summary factors for general cognitive performance, memory, executive functioning, and language using multilevel models. Retest effects were parameterized in two ways, as improvement between the first and subsequent testings, and as the square root of the number of prior testings. We evaluated whether the retest effect differed by individual characteristics. The mean retest effect for general cognitive performance was 0.60 standard deviations (95% confidence interval [0.46, 0.74]), and was similar for memory, executive functioning, and language. Retest effects were greater for participants in the lowest quartile of cognitive performance (many of whom met criteria for dementia based on a study algorithm), consistent with regression to the mean. Retest did not differ by other characteristics. Retest effects are large in this community-based sample, but do not vary by demographic or dementia-related characteristics. Differential retest effects may not limit the generalizability of inferences across different groups in longitudinal research. (JINS, 2015, 21, 506–518)

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Explaining and Controlling Regression to the Mean in Longitudinal Research Designs

Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research ◽

10.1044/1092-4388(2003/104) ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 46 (6) ◽

pp. 1340-1351 ◽

Cited By ~ 26

Author(s):

Xuyang Zhang ◽

J. Bruce Tomblin

Keyword(s):

Measurement Error ◽

Longitudinal Research ◽

Formal Analysis ◽

Sampling Bias ◽

Regression To The Mean ◽

Regression Effects ◽

Regression Effect ◽

Research Designs ◽

Research Findings ◽

The Mean

This tutorial is concerned with examining how regression to the mean influences research findings in longitudinal studies of clinical populations. In such studies participants are often obtained because of performance that deviates systematically from the population mean and are then subsequently studied with respect to change in the trait used for this selection. It is shown that in such research there is a potential for the estimates of change to be erroneous due to the effect of regression to the mean. The source of the regression effect is shown to arise from measurement error and a sampling bias of this measurement error in the process of selecting on extreme scores. It is also shown that regression effects are greater with measures that are less reliable and with samples that are selected with more extreme scores. Furthermore, it is shown that regression effects are particularly prominent when measures of change are based on changes in dichotomous states formed from quantitative, normally distributed traits. In addition to a formal analysis of the regression to the mean, the features of regression to the mean are demonstrated via a simulation.

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COHORT DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE AGING: THE ROLE OF PERCEIVED WORK ENVIRONMENT

Innovation in Aging ◽

10.1093/geroni/igz038.091 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. S24-S24

Author(s):

Gizem Hueluer ◽

Nilam Ram ◽

Sherry L Willis ◽

K Warner Schaie ◽

Denis Gerstorf

Keyword(s):

Work Environment ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Cognitive Aging ◽

Cognitive Change ◽

Historical Change ◽

Work Demands ◽

Word Fluency ◽

Cohort Differences ◽

Seattle Longitudinal Study

Abstract Studies of historical change on cognitive aging generally document that later-born cohorts outperform earlier-born cohorts on tests of fluid cognitive performance. It is often noted how advances in educational attainment contribute to this finding. Over the last century, work demands and characteristics have changed profoundly, with shifts from a manufacturing to service and technical economy. We used data from the Seattle Longitudinal Study to compare trajectories of cognitive change between earlier-born (1901-1938) and later-born cohorts (1939-1966). Our findings show that (a) later-born cohorts had higher levels of performance on most cognitive tasks and exhibited less decline in word fluency, (b) had more enriched perceived work environment as indicated by higher levels of worker control and innovation, with no cohort differences in work autonomy (c) these experiences were associated with higher levels of cognitive performance independent of education and consistently across cohorts. We discuss potential mechanisms underlying these associations.

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COGNITIVE PERFORMANCE AND COGNITIVE COMPLAINTS WITH ATTITUDES TOWARD AGING IN MIDLIFE AND OLD AGE

Innovation in Aging ◽

10.1093/geroni/igz038.1414 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. S385-S385

Author(s):

Jelena Siebert ◽

Jelena S Siebert ◽

Tina Braun ◽

Hans-Werner Wahl

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Performance ◽

Old Age ◽

Adult Development ◽

Longitudinal Research ◽

Age Groups ◽

Later Life ◽

Cognitive Change ◽

Cognitive Complaints ◽

Growth Curve Models ◽

Age Cohorts

Abstract Converging longitudinal research suggests that more negative views on aging go along with higher cognitive impairment. In some contrast, although conceptually suggested, possible reciprocal relationships remain less clear empirically. Using 20-year data from the Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study of Adult Development (ILSE), we aim to better understand developmental co-dynamics between cognitive factors and attitude toward own aging (ATOA). Drawing on 1002 baseline participants (445 at T4) from two age cohorts (midlife: 40 years at baseline; old age: 60 years), longitudinal trajectories between ATOA, performance-based cognitive measures and subjective cognitive complaints are examined. Findings based on multi-group latent growth curve models (a) reveal substantial associations between ATOA and subjective complaints as well as objective cognition in both age groups; (b) confirm previous findings that ATOA predicts cognitive change over 20 years; and (c) find cognitive complaints but not cognitive performance able to predict change in ATOA in later life.

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Contemporary Approaches to the Study of Cognitive Aging

Innovation in Aging ◽

10.1093/geroni/igaa057.1913 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. 575-576

Author(s):

Gizem Hueluer ◽

Elizabeth A L Stine-Morrow

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Functioning ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Old Age ◽

Age Differences ◽

Adult Development ◽

Cognitive Aging ◽

Practical Importance ◽

Cognitive Change ◽

Cognitive Status ◽

Age Related

Abstract Cognitive aging research is gaining societal and practical importance because of population aging. Current research is focused on describing age differences and age-related changes in cognitive performance, understanding potential causes underlying these differences and changes, and identifying factors that promote maintenance of cognitive functioning in old age. The goal of this research group is to showcase new developments in research studying age differences in cognitive performance and longitudinal cognitive change in the second half of life. Hülür et al. examine associations between midlife occupational factors and trajectories of cognitive change using data from the German Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study of Adult Development and Aging (ILSE). Luo et al. use 12-year longitudinal data from 499 older participants in ILSE to study bidirectional associations between social relationships and cognitive performance. Small et al. examine the correspondence between objective and subjective cognitive performance, and measures of fatigue and depressed mood in experience sampling data from breast cancer survivors. Haas et al. compare laboratory and at-home online assessments of cognitive status and prospective memory over the adult lifespan and evaluate the quality of self-administered tests. The discussion by Elizabeth Stine-Morrow will focus on how these approaches contribute to our understanding of processes of cognitive aging and how they can be utilized to promote maintenance of cognitive functioning in old age.

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Attrition in Longitudinal Data is Primarily Selective with Respect to Level Rather than Rate of Change

Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society ◽

10.1017/s135561771900016x ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 25 (6) ◽

pp. 618-623

Author(s):

Timothy A. Salthouse

Keyword(s):

Young Adults ◽

Longitudinal Data ◽

Cognitive Functioning ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Longitudinal Research ◽

Cognitive Change ◽

Rate Of Change ◽

Longitudinal Change ◽

Similar Magnitude ◽

Cognitive Domains

AbstractObjectives: An important question in longitudinal research is whether the individuals who discontinue participation differ in their level of, or their change in, cognitive functioning relative to individuals who return for subsequent occasions. Methods: Performance in five cognitive domains was examined in nearly 5000 participants between 18 and 85 years of age who completed between one and five longitudinal occasions. Results: Little or no differences in cognitive performance were apparent between young adults who did or did not return for subsequent longitudinal occasions. However, among adults above about 45 years of age, returning participants had higher levels of cognitive performance, but approximately similar magnitude of longitudinal change, as participants completing fewer occasions. Conclusions: These results suggest that generalizability of longitudinal comparisons may be restricted to individuals with relatively high levels of cognitive functioning, but that rates of cognitive change are nearly comparable for individuals completing different numbers of longitudinal occasions.

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Socioeconomic inequalities in cognitive performance among early ageing people: The Constances cohort

European Journal of Public Health ◽

10.1093/eurpub/ckz186.241 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 29 (Supplement_4) ◽

Author(s):

N Letellier ◽

I Carrière ◽

E Cadot ◽

L Berkman ◽

M Goldberg ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cognitive Performance ◽

Verbal Memory ◽

Cognitive Aging ◽

Brain Aging ◽

Poor Performance ◽

Deprivation Level ◽

Individual Characteristics ◽

Living Environment ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Individual Level

Abstract Background In spite of the recent awareness of environmental characteristic’s impact on brain aging, links between contextual socioeconomic status and cognitive performance (CP) remains unclear. The objective was to investigate the influence of individual and contextual deprivation on cognitive performance in order to better characterize vulnerable population. Methods We performed cross-sectional analyses on 44,762 participants (45-70 y) of the French Constances cohort. Cognitive performance was assessed using a global cognitive score calculated with 6 cognitive tests evaluating global cognitive function, episodic verbal memory, language abilities, and executive functions. Poor performance was defined as a score below or equal to the 25th percentile of the distribution. We approached the deprivation by two validated multidimensional index: at individual level with the EPICES score (deprived if < 30.17) and contextual level with the FDep09 score divided in quintile (Q5 being the most deprived). Associations were estimated with multilevel logistic regressions. Results At the individual level, participants more deprived had poorer CP independently to sex, age, education and health status (OR 1.58 [1.48; 1.69]). At the contextual level, the more people lived in deprived environment, the poorer their CP (p<.0001), even after adjustment on individual deprivation and other individual characteristics (Q5 vs Q1: OR 1.28 [1.15; 1.41]). Conclusions In this large cohort of early-ageing people, area-based disparities in cognitive impairment were highlighted. A better understanding of the influence of living environment deprivation level on cognitive aging could help to define new strategies in prevention by targeting at-risk populations in interventions studies in order to reduce social health inequalities. Key messages Our study evidenced a strong socio-economic gradient of cognitive performance identifiable on both individual and contextual level, in a large sample of middle-aged volunteers. Independently to individual deprivation and other individual characteristics, living in a deprived environment may be detrimental to the brain health.

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Childhood social class and cognitive aging in the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ◽

10.1073/pnas.1620603114 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 114 (27) ◽

pp. 7001-7006 ◽

Cited By ~ 17

Author(s):

Malin Ericsson ◽

Cecilia Lundholm ◽

Stefan Fors ◽

Anna K. Dahl Aslan ◽

Catalina Zavala ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Social Class ◽

Cognitive Performance ◽

Cognitive Abilities ◽

Cognitive Aging ◽

Twin Study ◽

Population Level ◽

Cognitive Change ◽

General Factor ◽

Growth Curve Models ◽

Socioeconomic Index

In this report we analyzed genetically informative data to investigate within-person change and between-person differences in late-life cognitive abilities as a function of childhood social class. We used data from nine testing occasions spanning 28 y in the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging and parental social class based on the Swedish socioeconomic index. Cognitive ability included a general factor and the four domains of verbal, fluid, memory, and perceptual speed. Latent growth curve models of the longitudinal data tested whether level and change in cognitive performance differed as a function of childhood social class. Between–within twin-pair analyses were performed on twins reared apart to assess familial confounding. Childhood social class was significantly associated with mean-level cognitive performance at age 65 y, but not with rate of cognitive change. The association decreased in magnitude but remained significant after adjustments for level of education and the degree to which the rearing family was supportive toward education. A between-pair effect of childhood social class was significant in all cognitive domains, whereas within-pair estimates were attenuated, indicating genetic confounding. Thus, childhood social class is important for cognitive performance in adulthood on a population level, but the association is largely attributable to genetic influences.

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Modeling Within-Person Variance in Reaction Time Data of Older Adults

GeroPsych ◽

10.1024/1662-9647/a000045 ◽

2011 ◽

Vol 24 (4) ◽

pp. 169-176 ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Philippe Rast ◽

Daniel Zimprich

Keyword(s):

Reaction Time ◽

Cognitive Aging ◽

Reaction Times ◽

Reaction Time Task ◽

Reaction Time Data ◽

Scale Model ◽

Time Data ◽

Time Task ◽

The Mean ◽

Second Wave

In order to model within-person (WP) variance in a reaction time task, we applied a mixed location scale model using 335 participants from the second wave of the Zurich Longitudinal Study on Cognitive Aging. The age of the respondents and the performance in another reaction time task were used to explain individual differences in the WP variance. To account for larger variances due to slower reaction times, we also used the average of the predicted individual reaction time (RT) as a predictor for the WP variability. Here, the WP variability was a function of the mean. At the same time, older participants were more variable and those with better performance in another RT task were more consistent in their responses.

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