Since the period of the brilliant discovery of Malus of the polarisation of light by reflection, the investigation of the general laws which regulate the action of crystallized bodies on light, has advanced with a rapidity truly astonishing, and the labours of an Arago, a Brewster, and a Biot, have already gone far towards completing the edifice of which that distinguished philosopher laid the foundation. When Malus wrote, the list of doubly refracting crystals was small, and the most remarkable among them possessing only one axis of double refraction, it seems to have been for some time, tacitly at least, presumed that the law discovered by Huygens, and since re-established in the most rigorous manner for that one, might hold good in all. The discovery, by Dr. Brewster, of crystals possessing two axes of double refraction, or two directions in which a ray may penetrate their substance without separation into distinct pencils, has proved the fallacy of any such generalization, and rendered it necessary to enter on a far more extensive scale of investigation. There are two methods which may be pursued in observations on double refraction and polarisation, the one direct, the other indirect. The former turns on immediate observations of the angular deviation of the extraordinary pencil, and is, of course, only applicable when the forces which act exclusively on the rays composing it are sufficiently intense to cause a sensible separation of the two pencils. There exist, however, a multitude of crystals in which the force of double refraction is so feeble as to produce scarcely any, or at most a very inconsiderable deviation of the extraordinary ray, and in which, consequently, the laws of double refraction could neither be investigated nor verified, without having recourse to some artificial means of magnifying the quantity to be observed; a thing easy enough in theory, but requiring, in practice, the greatest nicety on the part of the observer, and in many cases altogether impracticable, from the physical constitution of the crystals themselves. The indirect method depends on the discovery of Arago, scarcely inferior in intrinsic importance to that of Malus, of the separation of a polarised ray into complementary portions by the action of a crystallized lamina. It was reserved, however, for the genius of M. Biot, to trace this striking phenomenon to its ultimate causes, in the action of crystals on the differently coloured rays, and to develope, in a simple and elegant theory, the successive gradations by which the polarisation of a ray in its passage through a doubly refracting crystal is performed; while, on the other hand, the splendid phenomena of the polarised rings, which we owe to Dr. Brewster, have established the connection of the tints so polarised with the force producing the deviation of the extraordinary pencil, and shown the legitimacy of conclusions respecting the intensity of the latter, drawn from observations on the former.
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETY AS REGULATORY FACTORS OF CIVIL LAW OF UKRAINE: THE ISSUE OF VALIDITY