scholarly journals The near win effect on observing behaviour in simulated slot-machine gambling: The role of conditioned reinforcement

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Lauren Colls
Keyword(s):  
Conditioned Reinforcement ◽  
Slot Machine ◽  
Slot Machines ◽  
Reinforcing Efficacy ◽  
Conditioned Reinforcers ◽  
Observing Responses ◽  
Observing Response ◽  
The Face ◽  
Machine Gambling

<p>Slot machines are a remarkably popular mode of gambling even though they are programmed to make a profit by paying out less money than is put in. One common feature of slot machines, which may increase the likelihood of persistent gambling in the face of this monetary loss, is the near win. This study’s aim was to investigate the conditioned reinforcing properties of near wins using an observing response procedure in the context of a simulated slot machine. In an observing response procedure, participants can use an observing button to produce a stimulus correlated with the availability of reinforcement (S+) or a stimulus correlated with no reinforcement or less reinforcement (S-). The percentage of observing responses made for each stimulus is thought to reflect the reinforcing efficacy of the reinforcer correlated with each stimulus. Experiment 1 successfully tested the procedure with an obvious reinforcer - wins - and found consistently more observing for the S+. In Experiment 2 and 3 the S+ was correlated with near wins, and in Experiment 2 only those with slot-machine experience had consistently more observing for the S+. Experiment 3 increased the probability of wins to enhance the reinforcing efficacy of near wins, but failed to find consistently more observing for the S+, regardless of slot machine or scratchie card experience. These results indicated that near wins are not conditioned reinforcers. However, participants tended to bet more following near wins than losses, which suggested that near wins may instead function as discriminative stimuli.</p>

scholarly journals The near win effect on observing behaviour in simulated slot-machine gambling: The role of conditioned reinforcement

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Lauren Colls
Keyword(s):  
Conditioned Reinforcement ◽  
Slot Machine ◽  
Slot Machines ◽  
Reinforcing Efficacy ◽  
Conditioned Reinforcers ◽  
Observing Responses ◽  
Observing Response ◽  
The Face ◽  
Machine Gambling

<p>Slot machines are a remarkably popular mode of gambling even though they are programmed to make a profit by paying out less money than is put in. One common feature of slot machines, which may increase the likelihood of persistent gambling in the face of this monetary loss, is the near win. This study’s aim was to investigate the conditioned reinforcing properties of near wins using an observing response procedure in the context of a simulated slot machine. In an observing response procedure, participants can use an observing button to produce a stimulus correlated with the availability of reinforcement (S+) or a stimulus correlated with no reinforcement or less reinforcement (S-). The percentage of observing responses made for each stimulus is thought to reflect the reinforcing efficacy of the reinforcer correlated with each stimulus. Experiment 1 successfully tested the procedure with an obvious reinforcer - wins - and found consistently more observing for the S+. In Experiment 2 and 3 the S+ was correlated with near wins, and in Experiment 2 only those with slot-machine experience had consistently more observing for the S+. Experiment 3 increased the probability of wins to enhance the reinforcing efficacy of near wins, but failed to find consistently more observing for the S+, regardless of slot machine or scratchie card experience. These results indicated that near wins are not conditioned reinforcers. However, participants tended to bet more following near wins than losses, which suggested that near wins may instead function as discriminative stimuli.</p>

scholarly journals The psychology of music in gambling environments: An observational research note

2005 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Griffiths ◽  
Jonathan Parke
Keyword(s):  
Observational Study ◽  
Slot Machine ◽  
Slot Machines ◽  
Observational Research ◽  
Background Music ◽  
Gambling Behaviour ◽  
Psychology Of Music ◽  
Leisure Pursuit

Effects of the listening context on responses to music largely have been neglected despite the prevalence of music in our everyday lives. Furthermore, there has been no research on the role of music in gambling environments (e.g., casinos, amusement arcades) despite gambling's increased popularity as a leisure pursuit. An exploratory observational study in gambling arcades was carried out to investigate (i) how music is used as background music in amusement arcades, and (ii) how slot machines utilize music in their design. Results indicated that arcades often have music that caters for their customer demographics and that this may influence gambling behaviour. Furthermore, music from the slot machine itself appears to produce important impression formations about the machine (i.e., quality of the machine, familiarity, distinctiveness, and the sound of winning). It is suggested that music (whether it is in the gambling environment or in the activity itself) has the potential to be important in the acquisition, development, and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Some preliminary ideas and hypotheses to be tested are offered.

Adding Value with Benefit-Cost Analysis: Forecasting Net Social Benefit from Impacts of Slot Machine Gambling in Maryland

2015 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 281-304
Author(s):  
Scott Farrow
Keyword(s):  
Impact Analysis ◽  
Social Benefit ◽  
Slot Machines ◽  
Benefit Cost Analysis ◽  
Net Benefits ◽  
Benefit Cost ◽  
Benefits And Costs ◽  
Machine Gambling ◽  
Distributional Impacts

The estimated impacts, benefits, and costs of legalizing slot machines in Maryland are analyzed building on and contrasting with results from an impact analysis. The analysis provides estimates of the components and the total net benefits to the state and its citizens; the role of uncertainty, distributional impacts, and a basic tax alternative. The results forecast mostly positive net benefits for Maryland both in comparison to doing nothing and in comparison to raising an equivalent amount in taxes. However, if slot revenue raised from the lower income population is given more weight, then doing nothing or raising taxes appears to be preferred.

The Benefits and Costs of Slot Machine Gambling

2013 ◽  
pp. 636-669
Author(s):  
Scott Farrow ◽  
Chava Carter
Keyword(s):  
Cost Analysis ◽  
Empirical Studies ◽  
Slot Machine ◽  
Additional Research ◽  
Slot Machines ◽  
Economic Welfare ◽  
Benefit Cost Analysis ◽  
Benefit Cost ◽  
Benefits And Costs ◽  
Machine Gambling

This chapter reviews the basic economic welfare criteria for slot machines, as implemented via benefit-cost analysis. More specifically, it provides a conceptualization of the benefits and costs of slot machines, as well as a scorecard for key elements of a benefit-cost analysis. The chapter also presents several illustrative empirical studies and discusses areas for additional research.

scholarly journals Investigating the Role of Language in Slot Machine Gambling

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Gordon Tan
Keyword(s):  
Slot Machine ◽  
Verbal Response ◽  
Training Procedure ◽  
Response Latencies ◽  
Verbal Responses ◽  
Relational Framing ◽  
Machine Simulation ◽  
Relational Training ◽  
Machine Gambling

<p>A systematic replication of Dixon, Nastally, Jackson and Habib (2009) was carried out to further examine the role of relational framing in attaching meaning to near-win stimuli in a slot machine simulation. The original study found that the verbally reported meaning of near-win stimuli could be altered through a verbal matching-to-sample training procedure. The current study confirmed this finding. Additionally this study had participants play on a simulated slot machine to assess if such relational training also resulted in changes in (non-verbal) response latencies when participants were presented with near-win outcomes during play. A study by Daly et al. (in prep.) had found that near-wins produced response latencies (in terms of initiating a new trial or 'spin') between that of wins and losses during slot machine play; a general finding replicated here also. However, in the current study it was also expected that changes to the meanings of near-wins would influence near-win response latencies. For example, response latencies following near-wins might become more like latencies following losses as a result of prior relational framing of near-win stimuli. The results of this study found a dissociation between verbal and non-verbal responses to near-win stimuli. The verbal training affected verbal responses but did not affect non-verbal responses. Some explanations are postulated for why this happened. These include the possibility that the near-win latency was merely an artefact of the experimental paradigm. Another explanation is that the dissociation between response types occurred because the contexts in the ratings and verbal training tasks were different to the context of the slot machine task.</p>

scholarly journals Investigating the Role of Language in Slot Machine Gambling

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Gordon Tan
Keyword(s):  
Slot Machine ◽  
Verbal Response ◽  
Training Procedure ◽  
Response Latencies ◽  
Verbal Responses ◽  
Relational Framing ◽  
Machine Simulation ◽  
Relational Training ◽  
Machine Gambling

<p>A systematic replication of Dixon, Nastally, Jackson and Habib (2009) was carried out to further examine the role of relational framing in attaching meaning to near-win stimuli in a slot machine simulation. The original study found that the verbally reported meaning of near-win stimuli could be altered through a verbal matching-to-sample training procedure. The current study confirmed this finding. Additionally this study had participants play on a simulated slot machine to assess if such relational training also resulted in changes in (non-verbal) response latencies when participants were presented with near-win outcomes during play. A study by Daly et al. (in prep.) had found that near-wins produced response latencies (in terms of initiating a new trial or 'spin') between that of wins and losses during slot machine play; a general finding replicated here also. However, in the current study it was also expected that changes to the meanings of near-wins would influence near-win response latencies. For example, response latencies following near-wins might become more like latencies following losses as a result of prior relational framing of near-win stimuli. The results of this study found a dissociation between verbal and non-verbal responses to near-win stimuli. The verbal training affected verbal responses but did not affect non-verbal responses. Some explanations are postulated for why this happened. These include the possibility that the near-win latency was merely an artefact of the experimental paradigm. Another explanation is that the dissociation between response types occurred because the contexts in the ratings and verbal training tasks were different to the context of the slot machine task.</p>

Role of Effort in Performance of Observing Responses

1994 ◽  
Vol 75 (1) ◽  
pp. 71-80
Author(s):  
Stevan C. Bennett ◽  
Cynthia L. Barkley ◽  
Gene D. Steinhauer
Keyword(s):  
Phase I ◽  
Choice Behavior ◽  
Free Choice ◽  
Phase 2 ◽  
Experimental Conditions ◽  
Extra Effort ◽  
Observing Responses ◽  
Observing Response ◽  
Gain Access

The role of effort in performing observing responses in an E-Maze was studied in 32 rats and 4 pigeons. In Phase I of Exp. 1, rats' performance of observing responses was tested in a regular E-Maze condition and in an extra-length condition in which the predictable arm of the E-Maze was 22 in. or 44 in. longer than the unpredictable arm of the E-Maze. The rats in the regular E-Maze condition preferred the predictable arm on free-choice trials, while those in the extra-length condition preferred the unpredictable, shorter side. In Phase 2 of Exp. 1, the rats in the regular E-Maze condition were switched to an extra-length condition, and rats in the extra-length condition were switched to a regular E-Maze condition. When these experimental conditions were reversed, the choice behavior of the subjects in the two groups also reversed. In Exp. 2, pigeons' performance of the observing response was tested in an E-Maze. Four pigeons learned to perform the observing response in a regular E-Maze condition. They were then changed to an extra-length condition. Preference for the predictable side declined after the change. The results of these experiments show that, when extra effort is required to gain access to the discriminative stimuli, subjects do not perform an observing response.

scholarly journals The Role of Free Spins in Slot-machine Gambling

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Lorance Taylor
Keyword(s):  
Response Rate ◽  
Research Programme ◽  
Slot Machine ◽  
Slot Machines ◽  
Gambling Behaviour ◽  
Major Focus ◽  
Baseline Phase ◽  
Momentum Theory ◽  
Free Spins ◽  
Machine Gambling

<p>Slot-machine gambling is disproportionately associated with problem gambling. It is therefore important to develop an understanding of how the programming and features of slot machines influence gambling. The current research programme investigated a major feature of many slot machines which has so far been neglected by experimental research – the free-spins bonus feature.  The first major focus of this research was a series of experiments that investigated whether participants prefer to play a slot-machine simulation with a free-spins bonus feature. In each experiment participants gambled on two simulations, one with a free-spins feature and a similar machine without free spins. Following this, participants could switch between the same simulations and the number of spins they made on each simulation was measured. Participants preferred the free-spins simulation, but only when the free-spins feature incorporated an increased rate of wins, music, animations, and graphics advertising the presence of the free-spins feature. In the final experiment investigating preference, we investigated whether responding was influenced by whether participants gambled with hypothetical money, or credit that could be exchanged for tangible rewards. Participants preferred the complex free-spins simulation similarly regardless of what they were gambling with, but selected larger bet amounts and gambled for longer when gambling with hypothetical money.  The second major focus of this research programme was an investigation of whether free-spins features cause increased gambling persistence – a hallmark of disordered gambling. We developed a new persistence-measuring task which was adapted from research investigating Behavioural Momentum Theory. Participants gambled on two simulations in a multiple schedule design. An initial baseline phase consisted of four alternations of each component, one of which had the complex free-spins feature demonstrated to increase preference in the earlier experiments. Baseline phases then alternated with disruption phases where video-clips were embedded into the top right corner of the simulations. The rate at which participants gambled during baseline was compared to the rate at which they gambled when the videos were present, with bigger relative decreases in response rate during the disruption phases indicating less persistence. The free-spins feature did not cause participants to gamble more persistently. Further experiments also assessed whether different frequencies of wins caused participants to gamble more persistently, and results indicated that they did not. The findings of this research programme have implications for Behavioural Momentum Theory, suggesting that comparing response rate during disruption to response rate during baseline is not highly sensitive to small differences in reinforcement schedules. The findings are also relevant for slot-machine legislation, providing an indication that limiting or removing free-spins features may reduce player enjoyment without reducing persistent gambling. Furthermore, the task developed in the persistence investigation provides a useful tool which can be used to investigate how other features of slot machines influence persistence. Future research could, for example, investigate how free-spins features interact with other slot-machine features to influence gambling behaviour.</p>

scholarly journals The Role of Free Spins in Slot-machine Gambling

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Lorance Taylor
Keyword(s):  
Response Rate ◽  
Research Programme ◽  
Slot Machine ◽  
Slot Machines ◽  
Gambling Behaviour ◽  
Major Focus ◽  
Baseline Phase ◽  
Momentum Theory ◽  
Free Spins ◽  
Machine Gambling

<p>Slot-machine gambling is disproportionately associated with problem gambling. It is therefore important to develop an understanding of how the programming and features of slot machines influence gambling. The current research programme investigated a major feature of many slot machines which has so far been neglected by experimental research – the free-spins bonus feature.  The first major focus of this research was a series of experiments that investigated whether participants prefer to play a slot-machine simulation with a free-spins bonus feature. In each experiment participants gambled on two simulations, one with a free-spins feature and a similar machine without free spins. Following this, participants could switch between the same simulations and the number of spins they made on each simulation was measured. Participants preferred the free-spins simulation, but only when the free-spins feature incorporated an increased rate of wins, music, animations, and graphics advertising the presence of the free-spins feature. In the final experiment investigating preference, we investigated whether responding was influenced by whether participants gambled with hypothetical money, or credit that could be exchanged for tangible rewards. Participants preferred the complex free-spins simulation similarly regardless of what they were gambling with, but selected larger bet amounts and gambled for longer when gambling with hypothetical money.  The second major focus of this research programme was an investigation of whether free-spins features cause increased gambling persistence – a hallmark of disordered gambling. We developed a new persistence-measuring task which was adapted from research investigating Behavioural Momentum Theory. Participants gambled on two simulations in a multiple schedule design. An initial baseline phase consisted of four alternations of each component, one of which had the complex free-spins feature demonstrated to increase preference in the earlier experiments. Baseline phases then alternated with disruption phases where video-clips were embedded into the top right corner of the simulations. The rate at which participants gambled during baseline was compared to the rate at which they gambled when the videos were present, with bigger relative decreases in response rate during the disruption phases indicating less persistence. The free-spins feature did not cause participants to gamble more persistently. Further experiments also assessed whether different frequencies of wins caused participants to gamble more persistently, and results indicated that they did not. The findings of this research programme have implications for Behavioural Momentum Theory, suggesting that comparing response rate during disruption to response rate during baseline is not highly sensitive to small differences in reinforcement schedules. The findings are also relevant for slot-machine legislation, providing an indication that limiting or removing free-spins features may reduce player enjoyment without reducing persistent gambling. Furthermore, the task developed in the persistence investigation provides a useful tool which can be used to investigate how other features of slot machines influence persistence. Future research could, for example, investigate how free-spins features interact with other slot-machine features to influence gambling behaviour.</p>

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