Rola społeczna aptek jezuickich w dawnej Rzeczypospolitej

2021 ◽  
pp. 42-83
Author(s):  
Andrea Mariani
Keyword(s):  
Surgical Procedures ◽  
Professional Education ◽  
Social Role ◽  
Raw Materials ◽  
Academic Education ◽  
The Poor ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Baltic ◽  
High Level

The article presents the social role of Jesuit pharmacies in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth based on the sources of religious provenance and inventories of Jesuit colleges drawn up as a result of the dissolution of the Society of Jesus in 1773. In the first part, the author analyzes the ecclesiastical and secular legislation and its impact on the activities of Jesuit pharmacies. Canon law did not forbid clergymen to deal with medicine, but only limited the possibility of obtaining academic education in this field and conducting surgical procedures. By adopting these rules, Jesuit legislation placed the main emphasis on superiors’ control over the finances of pharmacies and limited the sale of drugs to protect the order from being accused of unfair competition by the townspeople. In the context of state pharmaceutical law, the privilege of June 30, 1662, which allowed for the liberation of journeymen by Jesuit pharmacists, was of great importance. In this way, a path of professional education in the field of pharmacy under the management of the Society, an alternative to the guild system, was created. The second part of the article discusses the social factors that favoured the establishment of monastic pharmacies. Particularly noteworthy is the uneven distribution of Jesuit pharmacies in the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. While in Royal Prussia the Jesuits did not run pharmacies to avoid conflicts with the Protestant bourgeoisie, in the eastern borderlands of the Polish-Lithuanian state, Jesuit pharmacies were often the only institutions of this type. The third part of the work presents the financial situation of Jesuit pharmacies. They had significant income, but also required considerable investments related to the purchase of raw materials and equipment in the Baltic ports. The fourth part of the article concerns the social scope of the activity of Jesuit pharmacists, who not only provided medicines to the poor, but also treated nobles, magnates and high church dignitaries. Not being obliged by guild regulations, apart from preparing medicines, they also diagnosed them, performed minor surgical procedures and assisted women during childbirth. The last part of the article discusses drugs and raw materials in terms of their availability to the broadly understood clientele. The offer of Jesuit pharmacies included both cheap products derived from the local flora, intended for the treatment of the poor, and expensive raw materials from abroad. Moreover, among the medical matter there were preparations for women and infants, as well as for people suffering from syphilis. In the end, the author emphasizes the centrality of pharmacies in the Jesuit pastoral strategy. Thanks to their high level, pharmacies not only corresponded to the ideal of mercy, but also contributed to gaining the favour and trust of representatives of social elites. In this context, the dissolution of the Society is an important turning point not only in cultural and religious life, but also in the history of medicine and pharmacy in the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

scholarly journals QUESTÕES FUNDAMENTAIS DE TEOLOGIA DA LIBERTAÇÃO

2016 ◽  
Vol 48 (2) ◽  
pp. 245
Author(s):  
Francisco De Aquino Júnior
Keyword(s):  
Liberation Theology ◽  
The Poor ◽  
The Social ◽  
The World ◽  
History Of

Resumo: Ao considerar o que confere nova atualidade à Teologia da Libertação (TdL), o autor destaca o conflito teórico silencioso entre os teólogos da libertação, que perpassa a história desse movimento teológico; o projeto do papa Francisco de “uma Igreja pobre para os pobres” que reatualiza as intuições que estão na base da TdL; a participação dos crentes de diferentes tradições nas lutas por justiça no mundo e que torna urgente o desenvolvimento de teologias da libertação. A partir deste contexto ele se propõe a tratar de algumas questões que dizem respeito aos fundamentos epistemológicos da TdL: espiritualidade e eclesialidade, interesse e orientação práxicos e lugar social. É ressaltado também a complexidade práxico-teórica do que se convencionou chamar de TdL. De acordo com o autor, dessas questões acima mencionadas, o lugar social da teologia é, deveras, o aspecto mais conflitivo, embora seja o mais bíblico, mais profético e mais eficaz da TdL. Enfim, são indicados alguns desafios atuais para a TdL, desafios concernentes a seu estatuto teórico-teológico.Abstract: Considering what confers new relevance to the Liberation Theology (TdL), this text emphasizes: the silent theoretical conflict between liberation theologians, which runs through the history of this theological movement; Pope Francis’s project of “a poor Church for the poor”, which renews the intuitions that are on the basis of TdL; and participation of believers from different traditions in struggles for justice in the world, which makes it urgent to develop liberation theologies. Based on this context, the author proposes to address some topics that concern the epistemological foundations of TdL: spirituality and ecclesiality, praxis interest and orientation, and social place. The praxis-theoretical complexity of the so called TdL is also highlighted. According to the author, from these issues mentioned above, the social place of theology is, indeed, the most conflictive aspect, although it is the most biblical, prophetic and effective of TdL. Finally, some current challenges to TdL, related to its theoretical and theological status, are presented.

scholarly journals Życie międzynarodowe rzeczy. Przedmioty luksusu i codziennego użytku w społecznej historii stosunków międzynarodowych

2018 ◽  
pp. 7-34
Author(s):  
Andrzej GAŁGANEK
Keyword(s):  
International Relations ◽  
Social History ◽  
Raw Materials ◽  
Social Systems ◽  
Social World ◽  
Advanced Technology ◽  
Prestige Goods ◽  
The Social ◽  
Uneven And Combined Development ◽  
History Of

The paper discusses the potential of objects, broadly understood luxury ‘items’ and necessities, in order to present uneven and combined development as the foundation of the social history of international relations. The author evidences that this approach to ‘objects’ allows us to achieve, at the very least, the following: (1) to observe the single social world which emerges after the division into ‘internal’ and ‘international’ is rejected; (2) to ‘touch’ the international outside the realm that the science of international relations usually associates with international politics; (3) to examine the social history of international relations, abandoning the approach that dominates in traditional historiography where production processes are privileged over consumption processes; (4) to demonstrate how human activities create internationalism. Discussing apparently different processes related to the international life of broadly understood ‘objects’, such as African giraffes, Kashmiri shawls, silk, the importance of English items for the inhabitants of Mutsamudu, or the opera Madame Butterfly the author identifies similar patterns which, although sometimes concealed, demonstrate the consequences of uneven and combined development for the social history of international relations. Prestige goods express affluence, success and power. They are usually objects manufactured from imported raw materials or materials, with limited distribution, which require a significant amount of labor or advanced technology to create. In contrast to everyday necessities, owing to their high value, prestige goods are exchanged over long distances through networks established by the elite. The analysis of manufacturing, exchange and social contexts related to prestige goods constitutes a significant source for understanding the social history of international relations. The examples in the paper present control over these goods as a source of political power. The control of raw materials, production and distribution of prestige goods is perceived as key to maintaining hierarchical social systems. Objects are inescapably related to ideas and practices. Uneven and combined development leads to meetings between people and objects, either opening or closing the space, allowing for their transfer and domestication, or rejection and destruction respectively. Concentration on the analyses of objects outside of modernization models or comparisons between civilizations and the conscious narrowing of perspective offers a tool with a heuristic potential which is interesting in the context of international relations. Comparative observation of objects (‘single’ elements of reality) via cultures undergoing uneven and combined development protects us from historiographic western exceptionalism. It also shows that the division between the ‘internal’ and ‘international’ unjustifiably splits the social world and makes it impossible to understand.

Consular Representation in an Emerging State: The Case of Norway

2008 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-19 ◽  
Author(s):  
Halvard Leira ◽  
Iver Neumann
Keyword(s):  
State Formation ◽  
Social Practices ◽  
Detailed Case ◽  
The Poor ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
Comprehensive History ◽  
History Of Diplomacy

AbstractThe consular institution has regularly been viewed by academics and practitioners alike as the poor sibling of diplomacy: as a career sidetrack or tour of duty for aspiring ambassadors; and as an example devoid of all the intrigue and politics by historians and theoreticians of diplomacy. Through a detailed case study of the emergence and development of consular representation in Norway, this article demonstrates that any comprehensive history of diplomacy must include a history of the consular institution; that the history of the consular institution is nevertheless not reducible to a history of diplomacy; and that studying the consular institution offers up fresh perspectives on the social practices of representation and state formation.

scholarly journals How “Muslim” are Central Asian Muslims? A Historical and Comparative Enquiry

2017 ◽  
Vol 4 (3) ◽  
pp. 243-269
Author(s):  
Galina M. Yemelianova
Keyword(s):  
Beliefs And Practices ◽  
Islamic Tradition ◽  
Central Asian ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
Muslim Majority ◽  
The Common ◽  
Muslim Communities ◽  
High Level ◽  
Soviet Central Asia

The article analyzes the social, political, and symbolic functions of Islam in contemporary Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan. Over many centuries, Central Asians developed a particular form of Islam based on a productive and fluid synergy among Islam per se, their tribal legal and customary norms, and Tengrian and Zoroastrian beliefs and practices. It is characterized by a high level of doctrinal and functional adaptability to shifting political and cultural environments, the prevalence of mystical Islam (Sufism) and oral, rather than book-based, Islamic tradition. These qualities have defined distinctive Islamic trajectories in post-Soviet Central Asia, which differ significantly from those in other Muslim-majority countries and in Muslim communities in the West. At the same time, the common Eurasian space and lengthy shared political history of Central Asians and other peoples of Muslim Eurasia are also reflected in the considerable similarities in their Islamic trajectories.

Alcohol and Humans

2019 ◽  
pp. 196-206
Author(s):  
Kimberley J. Hockings ◽  
Robin I.M. Dunbar
Keyword(s):  
Alcohol Consumption ◽  
Evolutionary History ◽  
Social Role ◽  
Medical Profession ◽  
Future Research ◽  
The Social ◽  
The World ◽  
History Of

Humans and alcohol have shared a very long history. In this final chapter, we highlight some of the key findings that emerge from the chapters in this book, in particular the evolutionary history of our adaptation to alcohol consumption and the social role that alcohol consumption plays, and has played, in human societies across the world. This raises a major contradiction in the literature, namely the fact that, despite this long history, the medical profession typically views alcohol as destructive. We draw attention to several avenues that would repay future research and how humans’ relationship with alcohol stands to change and evolve.

Journalistic Organizations: Arenas for Professional and Symbolic Struggles

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Florence Le Cam
Keyword(s):  
Trade Unions ◽  
Social Role ◽  
National Level ◽  
Media Companies ◽  
Employment Conditions ◽  
General Terms ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Media ◽  
The 19Th Century

From the end of the 19th century until the present, journalists have created associations, trade unions, clubs, and major international networks to organize workers, defend their rights, set out their duties, establish rules of good conduct, and structure their professional journalistic skills. These journalistic organizations are central actors in the history of the professionalization of journalistic groups around the world. They have enabled journalists to make their demands public, exchange views with journalists from other countries, and sometimes even promote and achieve legal recognition of their profession. In general terms, they have provided journalists with fora to discuss their working conditions, their profession, and the social role of the media and journalism. In this way, they have helped to structure not only discourses and practices, but also networks of solidarity at both national and international levels. These organizations can exist in different arenas: within media companies, at the national level, or internationally. And, despite their variety over time, they have often pursued similar objectives: protect journalists’ pay and employment conditions and status; conceive strategies to maintain a certain form of autonomy in authoritarian political contexts; nourish international networking ambitions that have made it possible to disseminate ways of doing and thinking journalism; and finally generate a set of actions that aims to defend the ethics of journalism, the quality of news, and the lives of journalists.

Schooled by Wren, or a School by Wren? The Conception and Design of Christ’s Hospital Writing School, London

2008 ◽  
Vol 51 ◽  
pp. 87-110 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tom Foxall
Keyword(s):  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
School Building ◽  
Documentary Evidence ◽  
The Poor ◽  
The Social ◽  
Final Design ◽  
Long Time ◽  
History Of ◽  
Christopher Wren ◽  
School Movement

On 2 March 1692, Sir Christopher Wren visited the governors of Christ’s Hospital in London, bringing with him a design for a new writing school to be erected on the Hospital’s Newgate Street site. Seven drawings for the school building survive in the Wren collection at All Souls College, Oxford. However, rather than suggesting Wren’s authorship, these drawings are customarily attributed to his pupil and long-time assistant, Nicholas Hawksmoor. It is generally accepted that Hawksmoor received delegated commissions from Wren by at least the early 1690s, but, although the draughtsmanship and stylistic evidence of the Writing School drawings suggest consistency with this interpretation, the surviving documentary evidence by no means proves Hawksmoor’s involvement. In fact, Wren’s name appears no less than thirteen times in the surviving Hospital minutes of 1691 to 1696, while Hawksmoor is never mentioned.The Writing School designs are briefly described in most architectural histories of the period, although they are considered remarkable more for heralding a shift in architectural taste than for the building shown in the drawings or for the social and ideological impulses that impelled its creation. This article considers the Writing School in the context of contemporary debates and anxieties concerning the provision of education for the poor, and within the wider sphere of late seventeenth-century charity-school building. Wren’s involvement is considered in relation to his philanthropic interest in the charity-school movement. The article concludes with an analysis of the designs and building history of the Writing School, and, on the basis of previously unpublished eighteenth- and nineteenth-century graphic sources, discounts Giles Worsley’s suggestion that Hawksmoor added a pediment to the final design. Wren and Hawksmoor’s specific responsibilities for the conception, design and execution of the building are considered, and it is argued that, although Hawksmoor was responsible for most of the surviving drawings relating to the project, Wren directed the process, taking responsibility for all designs produced in his office and claiming authorship for the drawings produced.

Seek and Hide: Public Health Departments and Persons with Tuberculosis, 1890–1940

1993 ◽  
Vol 21 (3-4) ◽  
pp. 289-295 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sheila M. Rothman
Keyword(s):  
Social History ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Health Departments ◽  
Familial Predisposition ◽  
Public Health Departments ◽  
The Poor ◽  
The Social ◽  
History Of ◽  
First Time ◽  
Old Females

In 1882 Koch discovered the tubercle bacillus and transformed both the medical and the social history of tuberculosis and the experiences of those who contracted it. For the first time, the absence or presence of the bacillus made it possible to define, in Koch’s terms, “the boundaries of the diseases to be understood as tuberculosis.” And for the first time the sick became subject to oversight and discrimination.Prior to Koch’s discovery, tuberculosis, or as it was then called, consumption, was considered a hereditary and non-contagious disease, albeit a very deadly and persistent one. Over the first half of the nineteenth century, it was responsible for one out of every five deaths. It crossed all boundaries of geography, social class, age, and sex affecting residents in rural as well as urban areas, the prosperous as well as the poor, the young even more notably than the old, females more often than males. Physicians assumed a familial predisposition existed (as in the case of insanity); following the precepts of humoral medicine, they postulated that the disease originated in “irritations” whose sources were to be found in the interaction of an inherited constitution with a particular lifestyle and environment.

FACTORS FOR THE FORMATION OF THE PROFESSIONAL ETHICS OF FUTURE SOCIAL WORKERS IN UNIVERSITIES

2018 ◽  
pp. 19-22
Author(s):  
Roksolyana Zozuliak-Sluchik
Keyword(s):  
Social Workers ◽  
Social Worker ◽  
Professional Ethics ◽  
Raw Materials ◽  
Formal Approach ◽  
Social Sphere ◽  
Professional Duty ◽  
The Social ◽  
Ethical Component ◽  
High Level

Unlike other types of activities, social workers deal with special people, their complex problems associated with difficulties in the implementation of life.From qualified specialists requires no formal approach but understanding of the clients and ability to empathize him. All of this implies the organic unity of professional knowledge and skills of a social worker and personally individual sacred qualities, a sense of high moral responsibility, and a willingness to fulfill his professional duty to protect human rights. Formation of professional and ethical competence of future social workers at universities is a process of purposeful and systematic influence on the motivational, cognitive and emotional sphere of students. One goal are the formation of a person who understands the importance of the ethical component of his professional duties, has the developed moral and personal qualities and practical skills of a social worker in the field of professional ethics, which ensures the choice of conscious ethical behavior in accordance with professional and ethical standards. Formation of professional ethics for future social workers of universities is facilitated by two classification groups of factors.The first of these is those that affect the level of formation; the second is the conditions for ensuring this level. Yes, the factors directly convert the properties of raw materials, materials into a set of properties necessary to meet some needs. Conditions, however, indirectly affect the quality, contributing to a more complete and effective influence of factors on the formation of properties of the desired quality. Three groups of factors are described in detail: professional, pedagogical, person-oriented (psychological). From the following groups of factors are distinguished: psychological compliance with the requirements of the profession; focus on activities in the social sphere (the presence of stable interest and propensity to the profession); development of creative activity of the future specialist; high level of professionalism, competence.

scholarly journals Introduction

2018 ◽  
Vol 71 (4) ◽  
pp. 1051-1057
Author(s):  
Michal Biran
Keyword(s):  
Social History ◽  
Family Relations ◽  
Cross Cultural ◽  
Primary Sources ◽  
The Social ◽  
Scientific Exchange ◽  
Hebrew University ◽  
History Of ◽  
Mongol Empire ◽  
High Level

Abstract The Mongol empire (1206–1368) caused massive transformations in the composition and functioning of elites across Eurasia. While the Mongols themselves obviously became the new Eurasian elite, their small number as compared to the huge territory over which they ruled and their initial inexperience in administrating sedentary realms meant that many of their subjects also became part of the new multi-ethnic imperial elite. Mongol preferences, and the high level of mobility—both spatial and social—that accompanied Mongol conquests and rule, dramatically changed the characteristics of elites in both China and the Muslim world: While noble birth could be instrumental in improving one’s status, early surrender to Chinggis Khan; membership in the Mongol imperial guards (keshig); and especially, qualifications—such as excellence in warfare, administration, writing in Mongolian script or astronomy to name but a few—became the main ways to enter elite circles. The present volume translates and analyzes biographies of ten members of this new elite—from princes through generals, administrators, and vassal kings, to scientists and artists; including Mongols, Koreans, Chinese and Muslims—studied by researchers working at the project “Mobility, Empire and Cross Cultural Contacts in Mongol Eurasia” at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The annotated biographies assembled here not only add new primary sources—translated from Chinese, Persian and Arabic—to the study of the Mongol Empire. They also provide important insights into the social history of the period, illuminating issues such as acculturation (of both the Mongols and their subjects), Islamization, family relations, ethnicity, imperial administration, and scientific exchange.

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