scholarly journals The Inevitable Contingency of Ethics on Theistic Foundations

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 159-174
Author(s):  
Muhammad Rasheed Arshad
Keyword(s):  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Ethical Code ◽  
Western Civilization ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Moral Principles ◽  
Ethical System ◽  
Western Model ◽  
Religious Significance ◽  
Religion And Modernity ◽  
Psychological Evolution

In this article, the author examines the dependence of ethics on theistic foundations. The Western conception is that ethics is a result of a natural evolutionary process. The Modern West has never accepted or believed in any ethical system governed by religion, and modernity has tried to establish that the universal moral principles are independent of any metaphysical context. The modernity project and rising secularization have taken charge of the field, and religious significance has gone absent from the mainstream, on account of which many challenges have occurred in moral and ethical matters. We will also examine whether Modern Western Civilization has established an ethical code independent of religion and whether we should follow the Western Model, if any. Moreover, this article examines how ethics is a cause and consequence of the development of personality, and no ethical system is ever there without any religious foundations. Human beings are built on the essence of servitude, and virtues evolve from the foundation of servitude. Another area the article focuses on is the challenges faced by the Muslims and how Modern Western Civilization made morality appears as a result of social and psychological evolution. We also study the possibility and impossibility of Good without an omniscient and omnipotent authority. The absoluteness of moral principles and values and the necessity of consciousness are also discussed in this article. 

scholarly journals 中國文化中的人論與醫學: 儒家之醫學模式

2015 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 49-66
Author(s):  
Shui Chuen LEE
Keyword(s):  
Chinese Philosophy ◽  
Medical Model ◽  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
The Body ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Western Model ◽  
Chinese Model ◽  
Religious Doctrine ◽  
Recent Trends ◽  
Based Medicine

LANGUAGE NOTE | Document text in Chinese; abstract also in English.西方醫學界近年有學者提出新的「生物心理社會精神」醫藥模式以回應西方現代醫藥模式的問題。本文首先指出西方傳統之以醫藥為針對身體的正常功能之失效為主，而此一失能是身體之物理生理的表現，因而其他心理或精神的病狀或病態都必須能化約為身體的物理生理情狀，才被認可為疾病。此自然排除了心理或精神，以及由社會宗教價值失調而來的疾病。雖然此模式需要修訂，但此缺失不足以重新引入宗教教義作為診治疾病的判準。本文同時檢討了西方醫學以物種正常功能作為疾病的判準，以及近年流行的「實證醫學」政策診治模式所延續與隱含的仍然是以物理生理為主的醫藥模式，並不真能包含源自文化與價值的心理與心靈的疾病或病態。由於文化與價值的不同，中醫的醫藥模式與西方醫學不同。中國哲學以人為與天地萬物同出一源，人的生命與宇宙相對應，因此，疾病被理解為人身之小宇宙失調，而治療則以順大自然的運行法則而行。這是建立在中國傳統的儒與陰陽五行的哲學而來。儒家哲學以仁心貫通天人，因而中醫自始即不限於氣化流行的現象，而有深入了解天道運行的意義，視人為與宇宙一體的生命，身體官能之運作與宇宙之陰陽五行之氣化相應，而其中以仁心之天道貫通疾病與醫病之關係，構成中醫之儒醫理念與「醫乃仁術」的模式。心靈與心理的疾病有不同的病源和對治的方式，不能化約為物理生理的情況。在此模式中，社會文化與價值失調的疾病和病態可以被正視和治療，這亦反映了醫藥乃是文化的一環。A new conception of medicine has been proposed in response to some of the problems of the modern Western model of medicine. In this paper, I posit the view that modern Western medicine takes disease to be a bodily deviation from normal species functioning. Such malfunctioning is regarded as of the physical and physiological kind. Other types of deviations such as psychological or spiritual deviations must be reducible to symptoms before they are regarded as a disease in medical terms. Hence, psychological or mental disorders resulting from social or religious values are not catalogued as diseases, and are thus left untreated. I argue, however, that although this situation needs correction, there is no justification for introducing religious doctrine as a category of disease. This paper examines the presuppositions of the normal species functioning criterion and recent trends in evidence-based medicine, and reaches the conclusion that the present Western medical model does not readily admit some of the diseases of the human psyche caused by disorders in culture and values.Chinese medicine, which is grounded in a different culture and different values, takes a different approach to medicine. Chinese philosophy takes human beings to have the same source as the universe, and thus to represent the cosmos writ small. Disease is regarded as a disorientation of the bodily cosmos, and treatment is basically a restoration of the body and mind as a whole in harmony with natural cosmological operations. Chinese philosophy draws on Confucianism, Daoism, and the Yin-Yang School. Confucianism views empathy as unifying human beings with Heaven. Thus, in Chinese medicine the evolutionary process of the cosmos bears deeply humane and transcendental values. The correspondence between body and universe results in a conception of medicine as the operation of the principle of ren, or humanity. Accordingly, the physician is honored as a Confucian doctor, and medicine is seen as an art or humanity. Mental and psychological diseases can have independent sources, and should never be reduced to the physical and physiological. In the Chinese model, social, cultural, and value disorders are regarded as proper diseases, and can be treated as such. It allows full realization of the cultural factors at play in medicine.DOWNLOAD HISTORY | This article has been downloaded 895 times in Digital Commons before migrating into this platform.

The Emergence of Subjectivity in the Ancient and Medieval World

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jon Stewart
Keyword(s):  
Cultural History ◽  
Middle Ages ◽  
Philosophical Anthropology ◽  
Cultural Development ◽  
Western Civilization ◽  
Individual Freedom ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
The Family ◽  
The Individual ◽  
Different Cultures

This work represents a combination of different genres: cultural history, philosophical anthropology, and textbook. It follows a handful of different but interrelated themes through more than a dozen texts that were written over a period of several millennia. By means of an analysis of these texts, this work presents a theory about the development of Western Civilization from antiquity to the Middle Ages. The main line of argument traces the various self-conceptions of the different cultures as they developed historically. These self-conceptions reflect different views of what it is to be human. The thesis is that in these we can discern the gradual emergence of what we today call inwardness, subjectivity and individual freedom. As human civilization took its first tenuous steps, it had a very limited conception of the individual. Instead, the dominant principle was that of the wider group: the family, clan or people. Only in the course of history did the idea of what we know as individuality begin to emerge. It took millennia for this idea to be fully recognized and developed. The conception of human beings as having a sphere of inwardness and subjectivity subsequently had a sweeping impact on all aspects of culture, such as philosophy, religion, law, and art. Indeed, this conception largely constitutes what is today referred to as modernity. It is easy to lose sight of the fact that this modern conception of human subjectivity was not simply something given but rather the result of a long process of historical and cultural development.

Seneca’s Moral Letters

2020 ◽  
pp. 261-285
Author(s):  
Jon Stewart
Keyword(s):  
Roman Empire ◽  
Western Civilization ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Philosophical School

Chapter 10 begins by introducing the life and work of Seneca. It explains his activity in the context of the historical situation in the Early Roman Empire and specifically in connection with his relations to various emperors including Nero. The reader is also introduced to the philosophical school of Stoicism, some of the key dogmas of which are highlighted in an analysis of Seneca’s letters. What is important here is that Seneca inverts many of the traditional Roman values by turning the focus away from the outward sphere of power, wealth, and fame. He argues that we should be indifferent to such external things and not allow ourselves to be fixated on them. By contrast, he encourages his correspondent to withdraw within himself. Seneca thus develops a new sphere of inwardness and subjectivity that is important for the later course of Western civilization, where many of these same ideas appear in Christian thinking. Seneca is also the pioneer of modern ideas such as equality among human beings.

scholarly journals INSTABILITY OF HUMAN SOCIETIES AS A RESULT OF CONFORMITY

2005 ◽  
Vol 16 (10) ◽  
pp. 1577-1585
Author(s):  
A. L. EFROS ◽  
P. DÉSESQUELLES
Keyword(s):  
Critical Level ◽  
Moral Principle ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Human Diversity ◽  
First Order ◽  
Moral Principles ◽  
First Order Phase Transition ◽  
Normal Human ◽  
Political Turmoil ◽  
First Order Phase

We introduce a new model that mimics the strong and sudden effects induced by conformity in tightly interacting human societies. Such effects range from mere crowd phenomena to dramatic political turmoil. The model is a modified version of the Ising Hamiltonian. We have studied the properties of this Hamiltonian using both a Metropolis simulation and analytical derivations. Our study shows that increasing the value of the conformity parameter, results in a first order phase transition. As a result a majority of people begin to honestly support the idea that may contradict the moral principles of a normal human beings though each individual would support the moral principle without tight interaction with the society. Thus, above some critical level of conformity our society destabilizes with respect to ideas that might be doubtful. Our model includes, in a simplified way, human diversity with respect to loyalty to the moral principles.

DEDICATORY BURIAL/OFFERING COMPLEXES AT THE MOON PYRAMID, TEOTIHUACAN

2007 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
pp. 127-146 ◽  
Author(s):  
Saburo Sugiyama ◽  
Leonardo López Luján
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Remains ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
The Moon ◽  
Religious Ideology ◽  
The Past ◽  
Religious Significance ◽  
Ritual Sacrifice ◽  
Ruling Elites

AbstractA series of highly elaborated burial/offering complexes have been discovered recently in association with seven superimposed monumental constructions at the Moon Pyramid. The archaeological contexts excavated during the past seven years indicate that these dedicatory complexes were symbols of a state religious ideology and communicated sociopolitical information on behalf of ruling elites. Rich artifacts made of obsidian, greenstone, shell, pyrite, ceramics, wood, and textile, as well as abundant skeletal remains of sacrificed animals and human beings, stand out in these unusual ritual deposits. Many of the offerings possess strong connotations of warfare and ritual sacrifice. After describing the five burial/offering complexes and discussing their possible function and religious significance, we conclude that, when the expanding Teotihuacan state orchestrated these monumental constructions, the most important ritual paraphernalia was buried in the new enlargement programs to express the ideology of sacred rulership.

Sympathy for Warranted Certainty: Universals and the Institution of Education

2005 ◽  
Vol 9 (1) ◽  
pp. 47-70
Author(s):  
Steven Loomis ◽  
Jake Rodriguez
Keyword(s):  
Decision Making ◽  
Educational Philosophy ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Moral Principles ◽  
Realist Conception

THERE IS MUCH that human beings are, and should be, uncertain about, but this should not include the most basic truths of reality. The effects of postmodern epistemology have widened the sphere of uncertainty in many domains of knowledge, and intellectual uncertainty and excessive skepticism are pervasive in academic circles (both Christian and non-Christian). Such thinking tends to sanction the kind of pragmatic decision making that legitimizes a view of human beings (and moral principles) as mere interchangeable parts with varying utility. This essay offers a critique of obscurant uncertainty and draws attention to the incremental marginalization of God-based knowledge. It calls for the grounding of educational philosophy in a realist conception of truth given that God, our knowledge of Him, and his knowledge of us are an excellent basis by which to ground human institutions (including the institution of education).

scholarly journals On the Origin of Human Behavior

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Igor Kopsov
Keyword(s):  
Human Behavior ◽  
Future Orientation ◽  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Transient State ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Evolutionary Development ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Action Execution ◽  
Feedback Mechanisms ◽  
Comparison Algorithms

<p>Numerous behavioral and decision-making theories have been proposed within various branches of physiology, psychology, and social sciences. However, few authors have studied the <i>origin</i> of behavior. It has been suggested that human behavior can be described as an algorithm, defining an action-execution process through a sequence of steps and feedback mechanisms. Given this premise, origins of human behavior are comparatively assessed to other forms of nature; to facilitate this comparison, algorithms were developed to sequence the functionality of inanimate matter (i.e. motionless or inoperative matter) and animate life (i.e. living organisms). Subsequently, the three developed algorithms – for matter, life, and mind – allowed to identify both their common and unique features, as well as to follow the evolutionary flow between the physical, biological, and psychological dimensions of nature. We postulate that algorithms of behavior of physical objects, biological organisms, and human beings are not standalone constructs but phases of the evolutionary process. Furthermore, in this evolutionary <a>process, </a>algorithms are continuously adjusted and enhanced through the addition of new steps and feedback mechanisms. The underlying commonality for these changes in behavior is rising prominence of future-orientation of actions, e.g., when an organism increasingly caters for its future well-being, rather than solely enhancing its transient state. This transformation takes place through shifts from immediate and predetermined reactions, to longer-term orientated and variable responses. Throughout this process, functional algorithms of higher complexity do not invalidate predecessors, but on the contrary, incorporate and build on them. The presented theory offers an explanation on how, and to what extent, operational algorithms are shared between various forms of nature. It also considers possible future directions for evolutionary development.</p>

scholarly journals On the Origin of Human Behavior

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Igor Kopsov
Keyword(s):  
Human Behavior ◽  
Future Orientation ◽  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Transient State ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Evolutionary Development ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Action Execution ◽  
Feedback Mechanisms ◽  
Comparison Algorithms

<p>Numerous behavioral and decision-making theories have been proposed within various branches of physiology, psychology, and social sciences. However, few authors have studied the <i>origin</i> of behavior. It has been suggested that human behavior can be described as an algorithm, defining an action-execution process through a sequence of steps and feedback mechanisms. Given this premise, origins of human behavior are comparatively assessed to other forms of nature; to facilitate this comparison, algorithms were developed to sequence the functionality of inanimate matter (i.e. motionless or inoperative matter) and animate life (i.e. living organisms). Subsequently, the three developed algorithms – for matter, life, and mind – allowed to identify both their common and unique features, as well as to follow the evolutionary flow between the physical, biological, and psychological dimensions of nature. We postulate that algorithms of behavior of physical objects, biological organisms, and human beings are not standalone constructs but phases of the evolutionary process. Furthermore, in this evolutionary <a>process, </a>algorithms are continuously adjusted and enhanced through the addition of new steps and feedback mechanisms. The underlying commonality for these changes in behavior is rising prominence of future-orientation of actions, e.g., when an organism increasingly caters for its future well-being, rather than solely enhancing its transient state. This transformation takes place through shifts from immediate and predetermined reactions, to longer-term orientated and variable responses. Throughout this process, functional algorithms of higher complexity do not invalidate predecessors, but on the contrary, incorporate and build on them. The presented theory offers an explanation on how, and to what extent, operational algorithms are shared between various forms of nature. It also considers possible future directions for evolutionary development.</p>

scholarly journals Obligations to whom, obligations to what? A philosophical perspective on the objects of our obligations

2020 ◽  
Vol 43 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kati Kish Bar-On
Keyword(s):  
Human Behavior ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Specific Kind ◽  
Philosophical Perspective ◽  
Moral Principles ◽  
Human Sense ◽  
Sense Of Obligation

Abstract Tomasello strives to understand the underlying psychology behind the human sense of obligation, but he only addresses a specific kind of obligation: to other human beings. We argue that in order to account for the psychological underpinning of human behavior, one should also consider people's sense of commitment to non-human entities, such as ideals, values, and moral principles.

scholarly journals Antropogeneza i jej związek z ewolucją wszechświata w teilhardyzmie

2007 ◽  
Vol 5 (1) ◽  
pp. 81-102
Author(s):  
Grzegorz Baczewski
Keyword(s):  
Catholic Church ◽  
Evolutionary Process ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Human Race ◽  
Main Concept ◽  
Common Information ◽  
The World ◽  
The Future ◽  
Spiritual Reality ◽  
The Universe

This paper deals with the connection between the origin of the human race and the evolving universe in the works of Teilhard de Chardin, the French thinker analysed this problem from different points of view: scientific, philosophical and theological, showing its different aspects.The results of his reflections on this topic form a system of thought in which Teilhard tried to explain the mystery of man and the universe, the main concept of this system is the evolution of the whole universe from a material into a spiritual reality. Part of this cosmic evolutionary process is also the origin of the human race (considered by Teilhard as a species of living creatures and only accidentally as individual human beings). Creation of the world and man according to Teilhard is also a continual process in which God uses the natural law of evolution. Man is the best part and the summit of this cosmic process, the human race has been craeted by God as one philum (monophiletism) and not as a couple (Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden) or many phila (poliphiletism). While creating human souls, God also uses the material elements of the world, sublimating them into spirit, these opinions created many problems for the Catholic Church and were not accepted. Teilhardian analyses of the future of the universe and mankind are very interesting and inspiring and have been used by many modern thinkers. Teilhard wrote about one global society united by science and technology (globalisation). In the future people will also form one sphere of human spirit, the sphere of common information (noosphere). Eschatologically, the whole universe along with the human race will be united with God as the mover and final cause of the cosmic evolution (its point Alpha and Omega).The end of the history of all created reality will be the transformation into spiritual reality of the Cosmic Christ, thus anthropogenesis will be fulfilled in cosmogenesis and finally in Christogenesis.

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