Human milk mycobiota composition: relationship with gestational age, delivery mode, and birth weight

Intestinal and human milk microbiota studies during infancy have shown variations according to geographical location, delivery mode, gestational age, and mother-related factors during pregnancy. In this study, we performed metagenomic mycobiota analyses of 44 transient and mature human milk among five different groups: mothers of normal spontaneous delivery-term (NS-T), caesarean delivery-term (CS-T), premature (PT), small for gestational age (SGA), and large for gestational age (LGA) infants. Fungi were detected in 80 out of the 88 samples. Regarding the number of observed fungal species, the NS-T group was more homogeneous (less variable) comparing the other groups (P<0.05). In the transient human milk samples, the most abundant species were Saccharomyces cerevisiae (33.3%) and Aspergillus glaucus (27.4%). While A. glaucus (33.7%) was second most abundant species in mature milk, S. cerevisiae disappeared (P<0.01) and Penicillium rubens became the most abundant species (35.5%) (P<0.05). Among the NS-T group, the most abundant species was Malassezia globosa in both transient and mature milk. In contrast, S. cerevisiae was the most abundant species in transient human milk (45.0%) in the CS-T group, but it disappeared in mature milk (P<0.01). In transient milk, M. globosa was only represented 6.0-9.0% of taxa in the PT, SGA, and LGA groups (P<0.05). In transient and mature milk in the PT, SGA and LGA groups, the most abundant species were A. glaucus and P. rubens. In mature milk samples, P. rubens is more abundant in CS-T group, PT group and LGA group, than the NS-T groups (P<0.05 for all). Although fungi constitute only a very small part of the human milk microbiome, we observed some changes that the human milk mycobiota composition varies in caesarean delivery, premature, SGA and LGA groups, comparing the normal spontaneous delivery, as well as differences between transient and mature human milk.

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Vaginal Delivery Could Affect on Lactose Content of Human Milk

Current Pediatric Reviews ◽

10.2174/1573396317666211206123648 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 17 ◽

Author(s):

Leila Zeynali ◽

Roghayyeh Nourizadeh ◽

Azizeh Farshbaf Khalili ◽

Mohammad Bagher Hosseini ◽

Asef Khalili ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cohort Study ◽

Cesarean Section ◽

Human Milk ◽

Vaginal Delivery ◽

Retrospective Cohort Study ◽

Retrospective Cohort ◽

Delivery Mode ◽

Sociodemographic Characteristics ◽

Mature Milk ◽

Milk Samples

Objective: The macronutrients of human milk are considered as essential nutritional sources in the first few months of a newborn’s life. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of delivery mode on the macronutrients of human milk. Methods: This retrospective cohort study was conducted on 102 women who gave birth by cesarean section or vaginal delivery between September 2019 and November 2019. The participants were requested to provide their milk samples on day 15±1 after childbirth. Results: There were no significant differences between the two groups (cesarean and vaginal delivery) regarding the sociodemographic characteristics and intake of fat, carbohydrate, protein, and energy. The lactose level was significantly higher in women who gave birth by vaginal delivery [adjusted mean difference, 1.2 (95% CI 0.02- 1.82)]. For other macronutrients, there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups. Conclusion: The vaginal delivery might influence the mature milk lactose level.

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Human Milk Virome Analysis: Changing Pattern Regarding Mode of Delivery, Birth Weight, and Lactational Stage

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu13061779 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (6) ◽

pp. 1779

Author(s):

Meltem Dinleyici ◽

Vicente Pérez-Brocal ◽

Sertac Arslanoglu ◽

Ozge Aydemir ◽

Sibel Sevuk Ozumut ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Birth Weight ◽

Human Milk ◽

Vaginal Delivery ◽

Gestational Age ◽

Small For Gestational Age ◽

Mode Of Delivery ◽

Large For Gestational Age ◽

Delivery Mode ◽

Age Group ◽

Spontaneous Vaginal Delivery

The human milk (HM) microbiota is a significant source of microbes that colonize the infant gut early in life. The aim of this study was to compare transient and mature HM virome compositions, and also possible changes related to the mode of delivery, gestational age, and weight for gestational age. Overall, in the 81 samples analyzed in this study, reads matching bacteriophages accounted for 79.5% (mainly Podoviridae, Myoviridae, and Siphoviridae) of the reads, far more abundant than those classified as eukaryotic viruses (20.5%, mainly Herpesviridae). In the whole study group of transient human milk, the most abundant families were Podoviridae and Myoviridae. In mature human milk, Podoviridae decreased, and Siphoviridae became the most abundant family. Bacteriophages were predominant in transient HM samples (98.4% in the normal spontaneous vaginal delivery group, 92.1% in the premature group, 89.9% in the C-section group, and 68.3% in the large for gestational age group), except in the small for gestational age group (only ~45% bacteriophages in transient HM samples). Bacteriophages were also predominant in mature HM; however, they were lower in mature HM than in transient HM (71.7% in the normal spontaneous vaginal delivery group, 60.8% in the C-section group, 56% in the premature group, and 80.6% in the large for gestational age group). Bacteriophages still represented 45% of mature HM in the small for gestational age group. In the transient HM of the normal spontaneous vaginal delivery group, the most abundant family was Podoviridae; however, in mature HM, Podoviridae became less prominent than Siphoviridae. Myoviridae was predominant in both transient and mature HM in the premature group (all C-section), and Podoviridae was predominant in transient HM, while Siphoviridae and Herpesviridae were predominant in mature HM. In the small for gestational age group, the most abundant taxa in transient HM were the family Herpesviridae and a species of the genus Roseolovirus. Bacteriophages constituted the major component of the HM virome, and we showed changes regarding the lactation period, preterm birth, delivery mode, and birth weight. Early in life, the HM virome may influence the composition of an infant’s gut microbiome, which could have short- and long-term health implications. Further longitudinal mother–newborn pair studies are required to understand the effects of these variations on the composition of the HM and the infant gut virome.

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A Comparison of Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Human Milk of Spanish Lactating Women during the First Month of Lactation Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry. A Comparison with Infant Formulas

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11123055 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (12) ◽

pp. 3055 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Silvia Sánchez-Hernández ◽

Adelaida Esteban-Muñoz ◽

Rafael Giménez-Martínez ◽

María José Aguilar-Cordero ◽

Beatriz Miralles-Buraglia ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Mass Spectrometry ◽

Gas Chromatography ◽

Fatty Acid ◽

Human Milk ◽

Milk Composition ◽

Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry ◽

Infant Formulas ◽

Mature Milk ◽

Lactating Women ◽

Milk Samples

Breastfeeding is the ideal way to provide infants with the nutrients they need for healthy growth and development. Milk composition changes throughout lactation, and fat is one of the most variable nutrients in human milk. The aim of this study was to determine the main differences between the fatty acid (FA) profile of human milk samples (colostrum, transitional, and mature milk group) and infant formulas. Human milk samples were provided by lactating women from Granada. Moreover, different commercial infant formulas were analyzed. FAs were determined using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. According to the results, oleic acid was the predominant monounsaturated fatty acid (41.93% in human milk and 43.53% in infant formulas), while palmitic acid was the most representative saturated fatty acid (20.88% in human milk and 23.09% in infant formulas). Significant differences were found between human milk groups and infant formulas, mainly in long-chain polyunsaturated FAs (LC-PUFAs). The content of araquidonic acid (AA) and docoxahexaenoic acid (DHA) was higher in human milk (0.51% and 0.39%, respectively) than in infant formulas (0.31% and 0.22%, respectively). Linoleic acid (LA) percentage (15.31%) in infant formulas was similar to that found in human milk (14.6%). However, α-linolenic acid (ALA) values were also much higher in infant formulas than in human milk (1.64% and 0.42%, respectively).

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Comparative Analysis of Triglycerides From Different Regions and Mature Lactation Periods in Chinese Human Milk Project (CHMP) Study

Frontiers in Nutrition ◽

10.3389/fnut.2021.798821 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 8 ◽

Author(s):

Huiquan Zhu ◽

Aimei Liang ◽

Xiaodan Wang ◽

Wenyuan Zhang ◽

Yumeng Zhang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Comparative Analysis ◽

Double Bond ◽

Human Milk ◽

Infant Formula ◽

Carbon Number ◽

Acyl Carbon Number ◽

Mature Milk ◽

Chinese Cities ◽

Acyl Carbon ◽

Milk Samples

The kinds and proportions of triglycerides of human mature milk play an independent role in the growth of infants. In this study, the human milk samples obtained from eight different Chinese cities (Chengdu, Weihai, Lanzhou, Jinhua, Beijing, Guangzhou, Zhengzhou, and Harbin) and six sequential mature lactation times (30, 60, 90, 120, 150, and 180 days) were detected for the triglycerides. The result demonstrated that total 66 triglycerides were detected in mature human milk, with acyl carbon number (ACN) numbers were locating in the range of 34–54 and double bond (DB) numbers were locating in the range of 0–6. In addition, the percentage of OPO, OPL, and OOO was relatively higher than others, accounted for more than 4% of total triglycerides in all the lactation areas and times, and the percentage of U2S and LLL triglycerides was also richest in mature milk. Furthermore, it was obvious that lactation regions had more significant effect on the triglycerides compared with lactation time and the triacylglycerols (TAGs) of human milk in Guangzhou were clearly different from that in other regions. Therefore, the results of this study will provide data reference for the design of infant formula suitable for Chinese babies.

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A Prospective Study of the Relationship of Infant Adiposity with Maternal Prenatal and Postnatal Diet Quality

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzaa054_101 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 4 (Supplement_2) ◽

pp. 1029-1029

Author(s):

Leah Lipsky ◽

Anna Maria Siega-Riz ◽

Myles Faith ◽

Tonja Nansel

Keyword(s):

Energy Intake ◽

Diet Quality ◽

Gestational Age ◽

Healthy Eating Index ◽

Sensitivity Analyses ◽

Large For Gestational Age ◽

Delivery Mode ◽

Funding Sources ◽

A Prospective Study ◽

Infant Birth

Abstract Objectives This study examines relationships of maternal prenatal and postnatal diet quality with infant birth size and growth, which are known risk factors for child obesity. Methods Women completed six 24-hour diet recalls (1 per pregnancy trimester and at 6 weeks, 6 months, and 12 months postpartum); infant anthropometrics were obtained at birth (n = 331 mother-child dyads), 6 weeks, 6 months and 12 months of age. Prenatal and postnatal Healthy Eating Index 2015 total (HEI), adequacy (HEI-adq) and moderation (HEI-mod) scores were calculated by combining recalls across pregnancy and across postpartum. Linear mixed models estimated associations of infant weight-for-length z-scores (WFLz) with prenatal and postnatal diet quality. Logistic regressions estimated odds of small-for-gestational age (SGA, <10th percentile) and large-for-gestational age (LGA, >90th percentile) associated with maternal prenatal diet quality. Covariates included maternal height, demographics, delivery mode, child sex, and gestational age at delivery. Sensitivity analyses examined whether associations were robust to inclusion of maternal total energy intake or early pregnancy BMI. Results WFLz was inversely associated with prenatal HEI (β±SE = −0.02 ± 0.005, P = 0.004) and HEI-mod (β ± SE = −0.04 ± 0.01, P < 0.001), and with postnatal HEI (β ± SE = −0.01 ± 0.005, P = 0.01) and HEI-adq (β ± SE = −0.02 ± 0.007, P = 0.005). SGA and LGA occurred for 92 (7%) and 172 (12%) babies, respectively. LGA was inversely associated with prenatal HEI (OR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.90–0.98), HEI-mod (OR = 0.83, 95% CI: 0.74–0.83) and HEI-adq (OR = 0.95, 95% CI: 0.90–1.01). SGA was not associated with prenatal diet quality. Associations were not changed when adjusted for energy intake but were modestly attenuated when adjusted for BMI. Conclusions Higher maternal prenatal and postnatal diet quality were associated with more favorable indicators of infant adiposity from birth through 12 months of age. Interventions are needed to determine whether targeting both prenatal and postnatal diet may lead to improved infant adiposity development. Funding Sources This research was supported by the NICHD Intramural Research Program.

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Characterization of Stem Cells and Immune Cells in Preterm and Term Mother’s Milk

Journal of Human Lactation ◽

10.1177/0890334419838986 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 35 (3) ◽

pp. 528-534 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Shujuan Li ◽

Lan Zhang ◽

Qi Zhou ◽

Siyuan Jiang ◽

Yi Yang ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Stem Cells ◽

Human Milk ◽

Gestational Age ◽

Immune Cells ◽

Immune Cell ◽

Mode Of Delivery ◽

Maternal Body Mass Index ◽

Hemopoietic Stem Cells ◽

Mature Milk ◽

Cellular Components

Background: Human milk is known to be rich in cellular components, including stem cells and immune cells. However, the dynamics of these cellular components at different lactation stages, and the differences between milk for preterm and term infants, are poorly understood. Research aim: To identify changes in the cellular components of human milk at different lactation stages, and to explore the associations of these changes with maternal and infant characteristics. Methods: Forty mothers of newborns of different gestational ages were enrolled. Colostrum, transitional, and mature milk samples were collected. Stem cell and immune cell molecule markers were detected using flow cytometry. Pluripotent genes (SOX2, NANOG, OCT4, and KLF4) were detected via quantitative real-time PCR. Results: Human milk contained some stem cells but more immune cells. The percentages of hemopoietic stem cells were significantly higher in mature milk than in colostrum, and the percentages of total immune cells were lower in mature milk than in colostrum. The percentages of hemopoietic stem cells in colostrum and transitional milk were influenced by gestational age. Some minor differences in the cell composition of human milk could be explained by maternal body mass index, the mode of delivery, and parity. Conclusion: Our results again confirmed that human milk contains stem cells. Additionally, the percentages of hemopoietic stem cells and major immune cells changed dynamically at different lactation stages and were associated with gestational age at delivery.

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Analysis of the Major Probiotics in Healthy Women’s Breast Milk by Realtime PCR. Factors Affecting the Presence of Those Bacteria

Applied Sciences ◽

10.3390/app11209400 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (20) ◽

pp. 9400

Author(s):

Georgia Nikolopoulou ◽

Theofania Tsironi ◽

Panagiotis Halvatsiotis ◽

Ekaterini Petropoulou ◽

Nikolaos Genaris ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Breast Milk ◽

Human Milk ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Microbiological Analysis ◽

Mature Milk ◽

Factors Affecting ◽

Milk Samples ◽

Realtime Pcr ◽

Healthy Women ◽

Lactation Stage

Breast milk has been reported as a bacteria source that affects infant gut microbiota development. The present study utilizes a realtime PCR method to identify Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium spp. in the breast milk of healthy women and attempts to identify factors affecting those human milk bacteria. Breast milk samples—both colostrum and mature milk—of 100 healthy women, were collected in Greece along with data about the demographic factors and nutritional habits of the volunteers. The colostrum samples were found to have higher percentages of either Bifidobacterium or Lactobacillus (76.9% and 48.6%, respectively) compared to the mature milk samples. For younger women, aged from 18 to 29 years, and women from rural areas, bacteria were detected in higher incidence than for older groups and women in urban areas, respectively. Moreover, for high-BMI women, bacteria were detected in lower incidence than for those with normal BMI. Probiotic supplements did not affect the composition of the breast milk-identified bacteria. Various factors such as lactation stage, maternal age, maternal weight, and residential location may contribute to the presence of those species in human milk. RT PCR has significant potential for the microbiological analysis of human milk.

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Concentrations of Carotenoids and Tocopherols in Breast Milk from Urban Chinese Mothers and their Associations with Maternal Characteristics：A Cross-Sectional Study

10.20944/preprints201710.0031.v1 ◽

2017 ◽

Author(s):

Yong Xue ◽

Esther Campos Giménez ◽

Karine Meisser Redeuil ◽

Antoine Lévèques ◽

Lucas Actis-Goretta ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Human Milk ◽

Maternal Education ◽

Alpha Tocopherol ◽

Delivery Mode ◽

Dietary Intakes ◽

Mature Milk ◽

Gamma Tocopherol ◽

Lactation Stage ◽

Chinese Mothers ◽

Healthy Chinese

This study aims to quantify carotenoids and tocopherols in human milk from healthy Chinese women, and to explore their associations with region, lactation stage, and maternal socio-economic and obstetric factors. Human milk was obtained from 509 healthy mothers and the compounds of carotenoids and tocopherols were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography after mild saponification and solvent extraction. Socio-economic and obstetric characteristics of the mothers and their dietary intakes through a single 24-hour dietary recall were evaluated. The median content of each component [μg/100mL, median (interquartile range)] in colostrum and mature milk was, respectively, β-carotene 8.0 (4.7-15.2) and 1.8 (1.4-2.7), β-cryptoxanthin 6.2 (2.4-12.9) and 1.8 (1.1-3.4), lutein 5.7 (2.9-10.2) and 3.4 (1.5-6.0), lycopene 6.3 (4.0-9.9) and 1.4 (1.1-2.0), zeaxanthin 1.0 (0.6-1.5) and 1.0 (0.6-1.4), α-tocopherol 645 (388-1176) and 211 (131-321), γ-tocopherol 68 (48-121) and 77 (45-120). The levels of all those vitamins presented regional differences, and decreased as lactation stage increased except for zeaxanthin and γ-tocopherol. Associations of carotenoid contents with maternal education, delivery mode, and present body mass index were found in multivariate analyses. These results suggest that some region, lactation stage, obstetric and socio-economic factors are associated with human milk concentrations of carotenoids and tocopherols in healthy Chinese mothers.

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P–765 Embryo donation pregnancies are at high risk even in young recipients

Human Reproduction ◽

10.1093/humrep/deab130.764 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 36 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

M Peigné ◽

J D Mouzon ◽

A Kiehl ◽

A Fraissinet ◽

V Maget ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Embryo Transfer ◽

Gestational Age ◽

Large For Gestational Age ◽

Embryo Cryopreservation ◽

Control Group ◽

Delivery Mode ◽

Embryo Donation ◽

And Control ◽

Frozen Thawed Embryo Transfer ◽

Thawed Embryo Transfer

Abstract Study question Are pregnancies after embryo donation (ED) at higher risk of complications than those issued from autologous frozen-thawed embryo transfer (FET)? Summary answer Even in young women, the risk of pregnancy induced hypertension (PIH) is four time higher in pregnancies after ED versus controls. What is known already After oocyte donation, a higher risk of PIH is well described. It is more controversial after sperm donation. The risk origin remains uncertain, even though an immunological explanation seems most likely. In ED, the fetus being fully allogeneic to his parents may be less well-tolerated. Very few data are reported about pregnancies after ED. The same allogenic model exists in surrogacies, but pregnancy complications are not well described in the literature. Study design, size, duration This anonymous, multicenter, comparative observational retrospective cohort study included all singleton ED pregnancies diagnosed at 7–8 weeks, from January 2003 to December 2018, in six French ART centers. For each, two controls were matched among autologous FET pregnancies. 209 pregnancies were included: 73 ED and 136 controls. Multiple pregnancies were excluded because of their increased associated obstetrical risks. Participants/materials, setting, methods Controls were matched according to pregnancy date, parity and women’s age. The first two singleton pregnancies after each index case meeting the selection criteria were retained. Each center coordinator collected information on infertility, pregnancy pathologies, outcomes and newborns. Statistical methods included univariate and multivariate analyses. According to French practice, all women were under 44 y/o. The main outcome was the percentage of PIH for ED versus controls. Main results and the role of chance ED was indicated for genetic disease in 17 cases (23.3%), double total infertility in 28 cases (38.3%), and double partial/total infertility in 35 cases (47.9%). Groups were comparable in age (mean age: 34.5 ± 8.6 versus 34.5 ± 4.5; p = 0.68), BMI, except for parity (more nulliparity in ED group: 90.4% vs 79.4%; p = 0.04). Pregnancy outcomes were similar for ED and control groups, the percentages of deliveries being 80.8% and 83.8%, respectively (p = 0.58). PIH occurred significantly more frequently among ED than control pregnancies (24.6% versus 11.9%; P = 0.04), with the difference mainly observed for severe forms: preeclampsia and HELLP (17.5% vs 4.6%; p = 0.01). No eclampsia was reported. In contrast, isolated hypertension frequency was comparable (7.0% vs. 7.3%, p = 0.94). Regarding labor and delivery mode, in ED group C-section was more frequent (47.3% vs 29.2%; p = 0.03). In neonatal data, no difference was found between ED and control group for prematurity, weight and height at birth, Apgar score, Small for gestational age, Large for gestational age and sex ratio. Seven neonatal malformations were recorded in ED group and 3 in the control group (NS). Limitations, reasons for caution Retrospective study in a relatively long period when different endometrial preparation for frozen-thawed embryo transfer and embryo cryopreservation method were used. Relatively limited number of ED because of low practice in France. No analysis of embryo stage at transfer (cleaved embryo or blastocyst). Wider implications of the findings: The PIH risk must be acknowledged to inform couples and provide careful pregnancy monitoring. A special care for gestational carrier should also be done since the allogenic situation is the same than in ED recipients. Trial registration number Not applicable

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Preterm human milk macronutrient concentration is independent of gestational age at birth

Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition ◽

10.1136/archdischild-2016-312572 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 104 (1) ◽

pp. F50-F56 ◽

Cited By ~ 13

Author(s):

Jan Maly ◽

Iva Burianova ◽

Veronika Vitkova ◽

Eva Ticha ◽

Martina Navratilova ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Human Milk ◽

Protein Content ◽

Gestational Age ◽

Milk Composition ◽

Milk Samples ◽

Group A ◽

Observational Cohort ◽

Group B ◽

True Protein ◽

Gestational Age At Birth

ObjectiveTo evaluate the amount of macronutrients in aggregate of human milk samples after preterm delivery during the first 2 months of lactation.MethodsAnalysis of the donated single milk samples, gained by complete emptying of the whole breast at the same daytime between 24+0 and 35+6 gestational age (GA), was designed as prospective observational cohort trial. Two milk samples were analysed every postnatal week up to the discharge from the hospital, week 9 or loss of lactation. 24-Hour milk collection was not done. Analysis was performed using the MIRIS Human Milk Analyser (MIRIS AB, Uppsala, Sweden).ResultsA set of 1917 human milk samples donated by 225 mothers after preterm labour was analysed. Group A (24–30 GA) contains 969 milk samples; group B (31–35 GA) contains 948 milk samples. No difference in milk composition between the groups was identified. Median of true protein content decreased from 1.6 g/dL in group A and 1.5 g/dL in group B in the first week of life, to 1.1 g/dL in both groups at the end of week 3, and then remained stable up to week 9. Content of carbohydrates and fat was stable during the whole observation, with interindividual differences.ConclusionHuman milk does not differ as a function of degree of prematurity. Protein content of preterm human milk is low and decreases during the first 3 weeks of lactation. Recommended daily protein intake cannot be achieved with routine fortification in majority of milk samples.

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