Exploring the Shifting Geographical Pattern of the Global Command-and-Control Function of Cities

In recent years, some cities have experienced significant growth in terms of command and control functions of cities, and thus have managed to relocate themselves to a much upscale position in the global economy. The main goal of this study is to examine the command-and-control function of cities and the impact of the relocation of corporate headquarters on a city’s command-and-control function. The study examines the changes in the revenues of companies located in selected cities and countries and measure the command-and-control function (“C&C”) of cities that well illustrates the strength of cities and countries in the global economy. To achieve our goals, we employ a composite indicator, the Command and Control Index that integrates such fundamental financial data of companies as revenues, profits, market value, and assets. In the analysis, we consider the companies that are listed by Forbes Global 2000. Our findings reinforce that the command-and-control function of the traditional centers of corporate headquarters has been lessening for a while, whereas cities located in developing countries and China in the first place have been occupying an increasing position in the global command and control. Now, we are experiencing the robust growth of Beijing’s command-and-control function index, and the decline of that index of the former leaders (i.e., New York, London, and Tokyo). We can also draw the conclusion that the migration of headquarters does not significantly impact the change of cities’ command-and-control function. In addition, when relocating the headquarters, most companies have remained within the same country and some of them have not even left the metropolitan area itself. In recent years, the number of those companies that have relocated the corporate headquarters has increased, and they have experienced increase in their revenues as well. To attract more corporate headquarters, cities has to offer an attractive environment for companies which strategy should be supported by such governmental initiatives as the reduction of corporate taxes for relocated companies.

The Impact of Cultural Variables on the Performance of U.S. Overseas Managers and on Performance Measurement Criteria: an Exploratory Study

<p>The study is related to the perceived impact of selected cultural variables on the performance of U.S. executives working overseas. Consideration given to these variables for the measurement of performance at the corporate headquarters was also researched in the course of the study. For the purpose of this study, twelve foreign cultural variables were chosen. The general perception of these variables and their perceived impact on the eight specific aspects of performance among the U.S. overseas managers was examined. An attempt has also been to made to ascertain the general perception of these cultural variables among evaluators and the consideration they assign to their perceived effect on the specific aspects of managerial performance in their evaluation of overseas managers. Five regions were chosen for the study on the basis of their being representative of distinct cultural clusters: Far East (more populous than some of the other regions with strong family ties and leanings toward collectivism) , Middle East (religion oriented), Africa (tribal), Europe (industrially advanced) and South America (developing countries). Data were obtained from all the five regions. In all 127 responses were received from the U.S. overseas managers. A total of eighteen responses were received from the evaluators for these five regions. Statistical tests were undertaken to explore the similarities and differences in perception of the twelve selected foreign cultural factors, their perceived effect on the eight specific aspects of managerial performance within and between the five selected regions, and between U.S. overseas managers and their evaluators. Statistically significant differences were identified in the mean responses from U.S. overseas managers regarding their general perception of the cultural factors and their perceived effect on specific aspects of performance within and between regions. However, the differences in the effects of a cultural factor on the selected eight aspects of managerial performance were not statistically significant at a global level although among regions these differences were statistically significant. From a global (aggregate) perspective, the tests failed to identify any statistically significant difference between evaluators' and managers' general perceptions of cultural factors and their perceived effects on the selected aspects of managerial performance. Within African, European and Latin American regions there are some statistically significant differences between managers and evaluators pertaining to a few of the cultural factors. The study has attempted to identify those cultural variables which have differential perceived and considered impact on various aspects of performance. The differential impact of these variables on performance measurement on a regional basis was also studied. Step wise discriminant analysis was employed to identify those cultural variables whose general perception and the perceived effect on the specific aspects of managerial performance would distinctly identify the region. This study by exploring the differences in perceptions of the twelve selected cultural factors and their perceived and considered effect on the specific aspects of managerial performance among managers and evaluators, it is submitted, has helped create a new perspective on measurement, analysis and evaluation of managerial performance on a more comprehensive basis. After measuring the compatibility of managers' perceptions for cultural elements and the consideration accorded to these in the evaluation process at corporate headquarters, and concluding that no statistically significant differences exist at a global (aggregate) level suggestions for future can be made. It is submitted that any differences, if remaining, between managers' and evaluators' perception of performance, can only be due to other factors which merit further investigation in future research endeavours. Multivariate discriminant analysis was employed to identify whether their exists statistically significant differences across various regions. The computed Wilks' lambda and the associated F value rejected the null hypotheses of no differences amongst regions. The stepwise discriminant procedure was used to isolate a subset of twelve variables from the ninety six variables submitted for the test. The selected twelve variables produce a robust discriminant model with a hit ratio of 99% for classification. The study successfully confirmed the existence of significant differences in the perceptions of U.S. overseas managers about the foreign cultural factors and their effects on the specific aspects of their performance. Also, the regions can be effectively differentiated (discriminated} on the basis of U.S. overseas managers' perceptions of cultural factors and their effects on their performance extant there.</p>

The Impact of Cultural Variables on the Performance of U.S. Overseas Managers and on Performance Measurement Criteria: an Exploratory Study

<p>The study is related to the perceived impact of selected cultural variables on the performance of U.S. executives working overseas. Consideration given to these variables for the measurement of performance at the corporate headquarters was also researched in the course of the study. For the purpose of this study, twelve foreign cultural variables were chosen. The general perception of these variables and their perceived impact on the eight specific aspects of performance among the U.S. overseas managers was examined. An attempt has also been to made to ascertain the general perception of these cultural variables among evaluators and the consideration they assign to their perceived effect on the specific aspects of managerial performance in their evaluation of overseas managers. Five regions were chosen for the study on the basis of their being representative of distinct cultural clusters: Far East (more populous than some of the other regions with strong family ties and leanings toward collectivism) , Middle East (religion oriented), Africa (tribal), Europe (industrially advanced) and South America (developing countries). Data were obtained from all the five regions. In all 127 responses were received from the U.S. overseas managers. A total of eighteen responses were received from the evaluators for these five regions. Statistical tests were undertaken to explore the similarities and differences in perception of the twelve selected foreign cultural factors, their perceived effect on the eight specific aspects of managerial performance within and between the five selected regions, and between U.S. overseas managers and their evaluators. Statistically significant differences were identified in the mean responses from U.S. overseas managers regarding their general perception of the cultural factors and their perceived effect on specific aspects of performance within and between regions. However, the differences in the effects of a cultural factor on the selected eight aspects of managerial performance were not statistically significant at a global level although among regions these differences were statistically significant. From a global (aggregate) perspective, the tests failed to identify any statistically significant difference between evaluators' and managers' general perceptions of cultural factors and their perceived effects on the selected aspects of managerial performance. Within African, European and Latin American regions there are some statistically significant differences between managers and evaluators pertaining to a few of the cultural factors. The study has attempted to identify those cultural variables which have differential perceived and considered impact on various aspects of performance. The differential impact of these variables on performance measurement on a regional basis was also studied. Step wise discriminant analysis was employed to identify those cultural variables whose general perception and the perceived effect on the specific aspects of managerial performance would distinctly identify the region. This study by exploring the differences in perceptions of the twelve selected cultural factors and their perceived and considered effect on the specific aspects of managerial performance among managers and evaluators, it is submitted, has helped create a new perspective on measurement, analysis and evaluation of managerial performance on a more comprehensive basis. After measuring the compatibility of managers' perceptions for cultural elements and the consideration accorded to these in the evaluation process at corporate headquarters, and concluding that no statistically significant differences exist at a global (aggregate) level suggestions for future can be made. It is submitted that any differences, if remaining, between managers' and evaluators' perception of performance, can only be due to other factors which merit further investigation in future research endeavours. Multivariate discriminant analysis was employed to identify whether their exists statistically significant differences across various regions. The computed Wilks' lambda and the associated F value rejected the null hypotheses of no differences amongst regions. The stepwise discriminant procedure was used to isolate a subset of twelve variables from the ninety six variables submitted for the test. The selected twelve variables produce a robust discriminant model with a hit ratio of 99% for classification. The study successfully confirmed the existence of significant differences in the perceptions of U.S. overseas managers about the foreign cultural factors and their effects on the specific aspects of their performance. Also, the regions can be effectively differentiated (discriminated} on the basis of U.S. overseas managers' perceptions of cultural factors and their effects on their performance extant there.</p>

Why Not Replace GDP?

This is a comment on Katharina Lima de Miranda and Dennis Snower’s multidimensional approach for the assessment of human well-being. It applauds the authors for looking “beyond GDP” but urges them to go one step further and replace GDP as a measure of material well-being by growth national income and actual individual consumption. Unlike GDP, these alternative measures for material well-being can be used to single out activities by multinational entities that are largely unrelated to domestic well-being. I will show that multinational entity activities, like the relocation of corporate headquarters and IP assets to Ireland and Luxembourg, have grown in such a substantial way in recent years that they can bias assessments of both material and human well-being.

Corporate headquarters in the twenty-first century: an organization design perspective

The corporate headquarters (CHQ) of the multi-business enterprise, which emerged as the dominant organizational form for the conduct of business in the twentieth century, has attracted considerable scholarly attention. As the business environment undergoes a fundamental transition in the twenty-first century, we believe that understanding the evolving role of the CHQ from an organization design perspective will offer unique insights into the nature of business activity in the future. The purpose of this article, in keeping with the theme of the Journal of Organization Design Special Collection, is thus to invigorate research into the CHQ. We begin by explicating four canonical questions related to the design of the CHQ. We then survey fundamental changes in the business environment occurring in the twenty-first century, and discuss their potential implications for CHQ design. When suitable here we also refer to the contributions published in our Special Collection. Finally, we put forward recommendations for advancements and new directions for future research to foster a deeper and broader understanding of the topic. We believe that we are on the cusp of a change in the CHQ as radical as that which saw its initial emergence in the late nineteenth/early twentieth century. Exactly what form that change will take remains for practitioners and researchers to inform.