Human capital and job opportunities according to educational level in Perú

Education promotes progress and economic and social growth, improves the quality of life of the population. The first objective of the study was to identify people's income according to the years of schooling, the second was to estimate the income gap according to gender, residence and working conditions, the third was to identify the return of education, work experience towards the income of the Peruvian inhabitants. Parametric tests and the two-stage Heckman model were used to obtain the results. The data come from the National Household Survey. Income differs according to schooling. There are gaps in earned income. For one more year of education, the monetary return amounts to 12,46%, if it is a woman, it is 13,23%, if it is a man, it is 11,51%, if it resides in an urban area it amounts to 10,62%, if it is a resident in rural areas it amounts to 9,83%. Keywords: Labor income, returns to education, Mincer equation, Heckman methodology. References [1]J. Mincer, “Schooling, Experience, and Earnings,” Natl. Bur. Econ. Res., 1974, [Online]. Available: https://www.nber.org/books-and-chapters/schooling-experience-and-earnings. [2]T. W. Schultz, “Investment in Human capital,” Am. Econ. Rev., vol. Vil. (1)2, 1961. [3]J. Freire and M. Teijeiro, “Las ecuaciones de Mincer y las tasas de rendimiento de la educación en Galicia,” Investig. Econ. la Educ. 5 - Univ. A Coruña, 2010. [4]K. Ogundari and A. Abdulai, “Determinants of Household’s Education and Healthcare Spending in Nigeria: Evidence from Survey Data,” African Dev. Rev., vol. Vol. 26, N, pp. 1–14, 2014. [5]C. Montenegro and H. Patrinos, “Comparable estimates of returns to schooling around the world,” Policy Res. Work. Pap. Ser. 7020, World Bank., 2014. [6]G. Fink and E. Peet, “Returns to Education in Low and Middle-Income Countries: Evidence from the Living Standards and Measurement Surveys,” Progr. Glob. Demogr. Aging Harvard Univ., vol. PGDA Worki, 2014, [Online]. Available: https://cdn1.sph.harvard.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/1288/2015/06/PGDA_WP_120_Fink.pdf. [7]L. Godínez, E. Figueroa, and F. Pérez, “Rentabilidad privada de la educación en el Estado de México,” Papeles Poblac. - Univ. Auton. Mex., vol. Vol. 22 N°, 2016. [8]M. Diaz, “Brecha Salarial por Género en Colombia.,” Econ. y Finanz. Int. - Univ. la Sabana - Colomb., 2014. [9]M. Urroz and M. Salgado, “La relación entre educación e ingresos: estimación de las diferencias salariales por nivel educativo alcanzado,” Fund. Zamora Terán, 2014. [10]E. Tarupi, “El capital humano y los retornos a la educación en Ecuador,” Gest. - Rev. Int. Adm., 2015, [Online]. Available: https://revistas.uasb.edu.ec/index.php/eg/article/view/571. [11]R. Arpi and L. Arpi, “Retornos Heterogeneos a La Educación En el Mercado Laboral Peruano, 2015,” Rev. Investig. Altoandina, vol. Vol. 18, 2016. [12]R. Paz and J. C. Quilla, “Retornos a la Educación de los Jefes de Hogar en la Región de Puno, 2011 – 2015,” Rev. Investig. Altoandina, vol. V. 18, 2016. [13]INEI, “Instituto Nacional de Estadistica e Informatica - Evolucion de la Pobreza Monetaria 2008 - 2019,” 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/cifras_de_pobreza/informe_pobreza2019.pdf. [14]A. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Londres: Londres - Reino Unido, 1776. [15]G. Becker, “A Theory of the Allocation of Time,” Econ. J., vol. Vol. 75 N°, p. pp.493-517, 1964. [16]R. Hernández, C. Fernández, and M. del P. Baptista, Metodologia de la Investigación, vol. 6ta Ed. 2014. [17]W. Mendoza, Cómo Investigan los Economistas, 1ra Ed. Lima - Perú, 2014. [18]D. Alfaro and E. Guerrero, “Brechas de genero en el ingreso: Una mirada mas alla de la media en el sector agropecuario,” Consorc. Investig. Econ. y Soc. - CIES, 2013, [Online]. Available: http://cies.org.pe/sites/default/files/investigaciones/1_informe_final_pb19_-_alfaro_y_guerrero_final.pdf. [19]J. Wooldridge, Introduccion a la Econometria. Un enfoque moderno, 4ta Ed. Mexico, D.F., 2009. [20]D. Gujarati and D. Porter, Econometría. 2010.

Structure of Remote Work in Public Education: A Rapid Scoping Review

Remote learning predominates the research literature during the COVID-19 pandemic, while remote work structures and workflow research were unknown. A rapid scoping review was conducted for remote work and workflow for 2020-2021. After locating and screening articles, a qualitative synthesis of the literature explored trends and themes using thematic analysis. A discussion of the perplexities of remote work and workflow, issues which impact every student and teacher, examined the problems of the new normal. Recommendations were to use Fayol’s principles as a guide within the context of using a holistic schooling experience focus, a formalized policy, and making leadership and management standardized and present within a remote environment. Limitations were discussed, and future directions for research gave a plan to improve remote work and learning.

Breaking the Silence: A Critical Review of Language Policy and Planning for Long-Term English Learners

Despite scholarship on emergent bilingual students that continues to evolve, the subgroup of emergent bilinguals who are labeled as long-term English learners (LTELs) have been overlooked and underserved for too long. LTELs refer to English learners who have been educated in a U.S. school for six years or more. This literature review is aimed at bringing awareness to this subgroup population and identifying the characteristics and classification process of LTELs described in the present scholarship. The review critically examines the de facto policy about LTELs from perspectives of the current climate of standardized tests (language management), the label itself (language ideology), and programs and schooling experience of these students (language practice). The literature review not only speaks to the stereotypes, struggles, and challenges that LTELs face, but also calls for future research studies to be conducted in addressing these problems pedagogically, institutionally, and systematically. Keywordslong-term English learners, English proficiency, language policy, standardized test, labeling

Excluding Whom? Race, Gender, and Suspension in High School

Students of color are more apt to face exclusionary discipline in school, such as suspension or expulsion, than their white counterparts, and once suspended students may be more likely to drop out of school altogether. Utilizing the Education Longitudinal Study (ELS), we assess the separate and combined effects of various student level influences while controlling for contextual influences on the odds of suspension and dropping out. Results suggest students of color face a more punitive schooling experience and are more likely to experience scholastic exclusion even after controlling for a host of covaraites. Thus, findings indicate implicit perceptions of students of color, irrespective of their attitudes and behaviors, guide disciplinary practices which have real effects for students’ subsequent academic experience.

Willed Learning

The authors share that they have no doubt that mainstream schooling wounds people deeply. From a holistic framework, people within mainstream schooling experience stresses to their mind, body, spirit, and emotions. Their souls are under siege as they are controlled, judged, manipulated, and oppressed. It is said of mainstream schooling that it creates opportunities, the authors say that it limits opportunities. People within mainstream schooling experience fear and anxiety, and fear and anxiety are not conducive to learning, rather they diminishes learning. In what follows, Brooke and Debbie will share their stories of how they found willed learning and what that has meant to them and their children. Their story is informed by Carlo Ricci's framework of willed learning.

Schooling Experiences of Tamang Girls in Nepal

School education is the foundation for continuing education and attainment of basic skills and knowledge. Despite the international promises such as Education for All, Universal Primary Education, and national provision of school education as free and compulsory in Nepal, most of the marginalised people could not complete their school education. Among them, girls from the Tamang community are still confronting insurmountable challenges in accessing and undergoing schooling experience in Nepal. This paper argues that the schooling process of the Tamang girls is influenced by the embedded characteristics of cultural setting and their subjectivities through their stories. Using narrative inquiry as a research method for the study, this paper explored that schooling is shaped by the complex and dynamic role of embedded identities, power, and historicity of the community and people. I present how the Tamang girls experience their school education and how it has been the foundation for their higher education journey as well as identities formation. The paper concludes that identities of Tamang girls in school are multiple, intersubjective, and contextual, which are less recognised in modern schooling.

A CASE STUDY ON THE ROLE OF SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS IN ESL PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ BELIEFS AND PRACTICE

Pre-service teachers are often involved in the continuous construction and reconstruction of their identities that are shaped by various internal and external factors. This study explores sociocultural factors that influence pre-service teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning namely 1) previous schooling experience, 2) teacher education, and 3) curriculum specifications. Participants of the study were three pre-service teachers studying at a local university in Malaysia. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews conducted after their teaching practicum at local government schools. Findings from this study indicate that the three sociocultural factors have a varying degree of influence towards the pre-service teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and practice. Previous schooling experience and teacher education programme have the most influence on all the pre-service teachers' beliefs and practice while curriculum specifications have the least impact. It is also evident from this study that the formation of teachers' beliefs is complex as sociocultural factors such as ethnicity, gender, school and home are always interactional. The findings provide implications for ESL teacher educators in considering pre-service teachers' beliefs in teacher education programmes as these may significantly impact their pedagogical practices.

Indonesian EFL teachers’ cognitions and practices related to social justice

The implementation of critical pedagogy has not been well addressed, especially that viewed from the teacher cognition perspective. This project hence aims to study the cognitions and practices related to critical pedagogy by investigating the integration of social justice by high-school English teachers in Indonesia. Two participants who claimed to be critical pedagogy practitioners were interviewed and observed. Interviews were done before and after the class observation. Pre-observation interviews were done in order to identify teachers’ cognition and track factors contributing to the integration of social justice in the ELT classroom. Meanwhile, the post-observation interviews were performed to seek for clarification in relation to the congruence and incongruence between the cognitions and the real practices. Participants’ schooling experience, curriculum demand, and personal beliefs seem to play a major role in the integration of social justice in class. However, incongruence was also recognized between their stated cognition and real practices.

Schooling Process: Is Schooling Experience and Its Outcome the Same for Girls and Boys?

The study examined if schooling experience and teacher’s classroom interaction is the same for senior secondary school adolescent girls and boys in Jigawa state, Nigeria. It also determined whether influence of students’ perceived level of personalisation of the teacher’s classroom behaviour and environment exist on their participation in the classroom learning activities. These were with a view to improving the teacher-student’s relationships and teacher’s classroom effectiveness. The study adopted a survey design. The population consisted of all male and female students in public Senior Secondary Schools in Jigawa state. The sample consisted of 370 Senior Secondary Classes Three (SS III) students. Of this number, 185 were boys and 185 were girls selected through stratified sampling procedure using sex as stratum. Their average age was 15.17 years. A self-developed instrument was used to collect relevant data in the study. Data collected were analysed using Independent t-test statistical method. The results showed that teachers do not significantly interact with girls and boys in the same manner in the classroom. However, there existed a significant influence of students’ perceived level of personalisation of the teacher’s classroom behaviour on their participation in the classroom learning activities. Also, there was a significant influence of students’ perceived level of personalisation of the classroom environment on their participation in the classroom learning activities. It was concluded that schooling experience is not the same for girls and boys respectively. Thus, appropriate interventionist strategies should be put in place to assist realising the objective of equal educational opportunity.

Distance teaching and teaching ‘as’ distance. A critical reading of online teaching instruments during and after the pandemic

This paper intends to read through a critical lens the digitalization of schooling caused by the COVID-19 epidemic. The emergency has forced European governments to close the schools and consequently, all the schooling activities have been transferred online. Referring to some works of Giorgio Agamben, Paul Virilio and Walter Benjamin the authors propose some critical remarks on the transformation of schooling space and schooling time that characterizes the practice of distance learning. This transformation pertains not only to accidental aspects of schooling but affects the very identity of the schooling experience. In a completely digitalized school, time is characterized by instantaneousness: time as duration is replaced by the “time of exposure”, as stated by Paul Virilio. In addition, the school completely dematerialized, is reduced to the two-dimensional space of the screen. The article aims to show that instantaneous time and dematerialized space make the experience of “crossing” difficult. Therefore, following some remarks by Jan Masschelein and Gert Biesta, it is maintained that the experience of “crossing” endangered by the digitalization of schooling is essential to an authentic experience of schooling. It is not intended to refuse the digital innovations as such but to “put them on the table”, in order to suspend their immediate use and analyze them critically.