Examining the role of traditional masculinity and depression in men’s risk for contracting COVID-19

Background: In the light of the COVID-19 pandemic and claims that traditional masculinity may put some men at increased risk for infection, research reporting men’s health behaviors is critically important. Traditional masculine norms such as self-reliance and toughness are associated with a lower likelihood to vaccinate or follow safety restrictions. Furthermore, infection risk and traditional masculinity should be investigated in a differentiated manner including gender role orientation, underlying traditional masculine ideologies and male gender role conflict. Methods: In this pre-registered online survey conducted during March/April 2021 in German-speaking countries in Europe, 490 men completed questionnaires regarding contracting COVID-19 as confirmed by a validated test, fear of COVID-19 (FCV-19S), and experience of psychological burden due to COVID-19. In addition, depression symptomatology was assessed by using prototypical internalizing and male-typical externalizing depression symptoms. Furthermore, self-identified masculine gender orientation, endorsement of traditional masculine ideologies, and gender role conflict were measured. Results: A total of 6.9% of men (n = 34) reported having contracted COVID-19 since the beginning of the pandemic. Group comparisons revealed that men who had contracted COVID-19 exhibited higher overall traditional masculine ideology and gender role conflict. Logistic regression controlling for confounders (age, income, education, and sexual orientation) indicated that only depression symptoms are independently associated with the risk of having contracted COVID-19. While prototypical depression symptoms were negatively associated with the risk of having contracted COVID-19, male-typical externalizing depression symptoms were positively associated with the risk of having contracted COVID-19. Conclusion: For traditional masculinity, no robust association for an increased risk of contracting COVID-19 could be established, while higher male-typical externalizingdepression symptoms were associated with an increased risk of having contracted COVID-19.

Endorsement of Traditional Masculinity Ideologies is Associated With Differences in Psychotherapy Use Among Heterosexual-Identified but not Non-Heterosexual-Identified Men

Background: Heterosexual-identified men, as compared to non-heterosexual-identifiedmen, are less likely to seek out psychotherapy when experiencing psychological distress. Stronger endorsement of traditional masculinity ideologies (TMI) has been reported to be associated with reduced psychotherapy use among men. However, the relationship between psychotherapy use, TMI, and sexual identity needs to be explored.Methods: A total of 728 psychologically distressed men (59.9% heterosexual-identified, 40.1% non-heterosexual-identified) from German-speaking parts of Europe completed an online questionnaire asking about current psychotherapy use, endorsement of TMI, experienced gender role conflict, depression symptoms, and externalizing depression symptoms.Results: In total 34.5% (N = 251) of the men were currently using psychotherapy, of which 47.4% (N = 119) identified as heterosexual and 52.6% (N = 132) as non-heterosexual. Heterosexual-identified men used psychotherapy significantly less than gay- and bisexual- identified men, while showing comparable psychological distress. Additionally, heterosexual-identified men exhibited higher endorsement of TMI across all domains and experienced more masculine gender role conflict, especially in the domains Success, Power, Competition and Restrictive Affectionate Behavior Between Men. In heterosexual- but not non-heterosexual-identified men, stronger endorsement of TMI was associated with reduced psychotherapy use.Conclusion: Higher endorsement of TMI is linked to reduced psychotherapy use among psychologically distressed heterosexual-identified men. Thus, challenging TMI and advocating for alternative masculinities that include health promoting behavior can especially help heterosexual-identified men.

Does the nursing curriculum influence feelings of gender-role conflict in a cohort of nursing degree male students?

It is estimated that more than 9% of the global nursing workforce is male and that this share will gradually rise over the next decade. Although there are some positive aspects of having a male nursing workforce, men in the profession still experience discriminatory behaviours and practices. Fortunately, this does not deter a number of men entering undergraduate degree programmes. The aim of this study was to understand the experiences of 14 male nursing students in their first year of the adult Bachelor of Nursing programme. Using the Inventory of Male Friendliness in Nursing Programs and the Gender Role Conflict Scale, this study found that the male students felt welcomed, supported and included into the nursing programme. In addition, they felt no overall gender-role conflict, although feelings of success and achievement caused some challenges. The results of this study suggest that the male students did not necessarily experience those inequitable behaviours and practices reported in the literature. It has been suggested that perhaps the reality of clinical practice may change the perception of nursing for male students. Therefore, implications for further research could include a longitudinal study to ascertain where the perceptions of the nursing programme change for the male nursing students over time.

Status loss due to COVID-19, traditional masculinity, and the prediction of suicidal ideation and recent suicide attempts

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic is causing extensive job loss leading to a loss of social status in many men. Endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology may render some men particularly sensitive to status loss and thereby to an increased risk for suicidality.Methods: In this anonymous online survey conducted in German-speaking European countries, 490 men completed questionnaires regarding loss of social status due to the pandemic, suicidal ideation and past-month suicide attempt. Furthermore, prototypical and male-typical externalizing depression symptoms, self-identified masculine gender orientation, endorsement of traditional masculinity, and gender role conflict were measured.Results: Out of a total of 490 men, 14.7% of men reported experiencing a status loss due to the pandemic. These men were more than twice as likely to report suicidal ideation during the past two weeks, and more than four times as likely to have attempted suicide in the past month than men not reporting a status loss. Depression symptoms, self-identified masculine gender orientation, endorsement of traditional masculinity, but not gender role conflict were positively associated with status loss. Suicidal ideation and suicide attempt were associated with prototypical and male-typical externalizing depression symptoms, but not masculinity- related constructs.Conclusion: Status loss emerges as risk factor for suicide and is associated with depression symptoms, higher masculine gender orientation and endorsement of traditional masculinity. Men with high levels of traditional masculinity and status loss due to the pandemic are at increased risk for suicide.

Measuring Gender Role Conflict, Internalized Stigma, and Racial and Sexual Identity in Behaviorally Bisexual Black Men

Black men who have sex with men and women (BMSMW) experience pressure to fill hypermasculine ideals and may not identify with “gay” cultural norms. Existing measures of gender role expectations and internalized homophobia are not culturally appropriate for BMSMW. Researchers generally measure categorical identification with race, gender, and sexual orientation groups separately, whereas BMSMW may identify with multiple categories. We modified the Gender Role Conflict Scale to create the M-GRCS and the Internalized Homophobia Scale to include biphobia (Internalized Bi/Homophobia Scale, IBHS). To examine identification at the intersection of race, gender, and sexual orientation, we created 11 Integrated Race and Sexuality Scale (IRSS) items. With data from 429 BMSMW, we conducted exploratory factor analysis of the 59 items using categorical principal axis factoring with unweighted least squares extraction and Promax factor rotation. We created simple-summated multi-item scales and evaluated their construct validity. The rotated solution yielded four factors with 47 items and a simple factor structure: M-GRCS defined two factors (α = .93 for restricted emotionality/affection; .87 for success/power/competition); the IBHS (α = .89) and IRSS (α = .74) each defined a single factor. The IRSS factor was positively correlated with the Lukwago Racial Pride Scale, r(417) = .40. The IBHS factor was negatively correlated with the IRSS factor, r(414) = − .22. The two M-GRCS factors suggest that the construct of hypermasculinity impacts BMSMW. The high IBHS reliability indicates that homophobia and biphobia were positively correlated in this sample. These three scales have potential for future studies with BMSMW.

Does Gender Role Conflict Moderate the Relationship Between Lifetime Adversity and HIV Stigma in a Community Sample of HIV-Seropositive Black Men?

Previous research highlights the need to better understand the complex relationships between factors marginalizing Black men who have sex with men and women (MSMW) living with HIV, including HIV stigma, trauma, and hegemonic masculinity. We examined associations between gender role conflict (GRC), trauma, and HIV stigma in Black MSMW living with HIV. 117 participants completed the UCLA Life Adversities Screener (LADS), measures of GRC, and HIV stigma. A multivariate model with age, gender role, and the LADS as predictors of stigma was statistically significant F (4, 110) = 12.81, p < .0001. The LADS was significantly associated with stigma ( b = 11.06, t = 4.17, p < .0001) and moderated by GRC ( b = 12.19, t = 2.25, p < .05); stigma increased significantly at high, but not low GRC. High GRC heightens the relationship between trauma and HIV stigma in Black MSMW. Future research must investigate associations among trauma burden, stigma, and GRC among vulnerable populations.