Genesis of the Xifeng Low-Temperature Geothermal Field, Guizhou, SW China: Constrains From Geology, Element Geochemistry, and D-O Isotopes

The Xifeng geothermal field is located in the Yangtze Craton, SW China, and is one of the most representative low-temperature geothermal fields in China. Widespread thermal anomalies, hot springs, and geothermal wells have been reported by previous studies. However, the nature and forming mechanisms of the field remain poorly understood. Element geochemical (ions, rare earth elements) and stable isotopic (D, O) composition of hot springs, geothermal fluids, rivers, and cold springs from different locations of the Xifeng geothermal field were analyzed in this study. The ions studies revealed that most samples featured the Ca-Mg-HCO3 type, except Xifeng hot springs, and which were characterized by the Ca-Mg-HCO3-SO4 type. Based on quartz geothermometers, the estimated reservoir temperature was 77°C. The results of stable isotopes (D, O) manifest that the Xifeng geothermal system was recharged by meteoric water at an elevation of 1,583 m from SW to NE. The research of rare earth elements (REE) revealed that their accumulation characteristics and obvious positive Eu anomaly were inherited from host feldspar-bearing reservoir dolomites through water-rock interactions. Combined with these observations, geological setting, and previous studies, it was concluded that the formation of the Xifeng geothermal field resulted from recharge, deep circulation, and secondary rising of the meteoric water along the faults. First, meteoric water infiltrated to depth through faults and crack zones. Second, the deep-infiltrated water was heated by radioactive heat, deep heat, and tectonic frictional heat. Finally, as the warmed-up waters underwent considerable deep circulation in the reservoir, it rose again along the main faults, and mixed with groundwater near the surface. Taken together, we suggest that the Xifeng geothermal system should be assigned as a faults-controlling, and deeply circulating meteoric water of low-temperature category.

Origin and Evolution of Saline Spring Water in North and Central Laos Based on Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes (δD, δ18O, δ11B, and δ37Cl)

This paper discusses the origin and evolution of saline springs in north and central Laos, based on chemical and stable isotopes (δD, δ18O, δ11B, and δ37Cl). All the saline springs in this study are of the Na–Cl geochemical type. The geochemical and water isotope values suggest that the saline springs in this study are mainly derived from meteoric water and/or ice and snow melt from the surrounding mountains and that they also experienced strong evaporation and intense rock–water interactions. The ionic ratios, characteristic coefficients, ternary Ca–SO4–HCO3 phase diagrams, and saturation indices of minerals show that the dissolution of halite, sulfate, and carbonate rocks may be the solute sources for saline springs in this study, whereas the underground brines in the Thakhek potash mining area are geochemically influenced by the dissolution of carnallite and sylvite. The global geothermal δ11B–Cl/B relationship and δ11B values (5.50 to 36.01‰) of saline springs suggest a continental origin of B. This B is most likely derived from marine carbonate rocks and marine evaporates (gypsum and halite) of the late Cretaceous, which is similar to the saline springs of the Nangqen–Qamdo–Simao Salt Basin. The δ37Cl value (−0.12 to +0.79) and the Cl/Br ratio (4076 to 9853) show that dissolution of late cretaceous marine halite layers, atmospheric precipitation, and water–rock interactions between volcanic rocks, mudstones, and sandstone can restrict the δ37Cl values in saline springs. Results from silica geothermometry and multi–mineral equilibrium diagrams indicate that the reservoir temperatures for the saline springs range from 87–137 °C and experience deep circulation. Hydrochemical characteristic coefficients suggest that saline springs in the Muang Say basin may have leached sylvinite and carnallite and that the potash exploration prospect in this area is relatively good.

The poleward enhanced Arctic Ocean cooling machine in a warming climate

As a cooling machine of the Arctic Ocean, the Barents Sea releases most of the incoming ocean heat originating from the North Atlantic. The related air-sea heat exchange plays a crucial role in both regulating the climate and determining the deep circulation in the Arctic Ocean and beyond. It was reported that the cooling efficiency of this cooling machine has decreased significantly. In this study, we find that the overall cooling efficiency did not really drop: When the cooling efficiency decreased in the southern Barents Sea, it increased in the northern Barents and Kara Seas, indicating that the cooling machine has expanded poleward. According to climate model projections, it is very likely that the cooling machine will continue to expand to the Kara Sea and then to the Arctic Basin in a warming climate. As a result, the Arctic Atlantification will be enhanced and pushed poleward in the future.

Enhanced Abyssal Mixing in the Equatorial Pacific Associated with Non-Traditional Effects

Recent theoretical work has shown that, when the so-called non-traditional effects are taken into account, the reflection of Equatorially Trapped Waves (ETWs) off the seafloor generates strong vertical shear that results in bottom-intensified mixing at the inertial latitude of the ETW via a mechanism of critical reflection. It has been estimated that this process could play an important role in driving diapycnal upwelling in the Abyssal Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). However, these results were derived under an idealized configuration with a monochromatic ETW propagating through a flat ocean at rest. To test the theory in a flow that is more representative of the ocean, we contrast a set of realistic numerical simulations of the Eastern Equatorial Pacific run using either the hydrostatic or quasi-hydrostatic approximation, the latter of which accounts for non-traditional effects. The simulations are nested into a Pacific-wide hydrostatic parent solution forced with climatological data and realistic bathymetry, resulting in an ETW field and a deep circulation consistent with observations. Using these simulations, we observe enhanced abyssal mixing in the quasi-hydrostatic run, even over smooth topography, that is absent in the hydrostatic run. The mixing is associated with inertial shear that has spatio-temporal properties consistent with the critical reflection mechanism. The enhanced mixing results in a weakening of the abyssal stratification and drives diapycnal upwelling in our simulation, in agreement with the predictions from the idealized simulations. The diapycnal upwelling is on the order of O(10) Sv and thus could play an important role in closing the AMOC.

Recirculation of Canadian Basin Deep Water in the Amundsen Sea

<p>Previous literature has shown that Canadian Basin Deep Water (CBDW) crosses the Lomonosov Ridge into the Amundsen Basin close to the North Pole. This intrusion subsequently flows along the ridge towards Greenland and eventually all the way to the Greenland Sea, but an influence of CBDW in other parts of the Amundsen Basin has also been shown. We detect this deep CBDW intrusion, which is visible as a salinity maximum and oxygen minimum at a depth of about 2000 metres, in hydrographic measurements from MOSAiC and historical data sets. We also use measurements of CFC concentrations for increased robustness, as the high age of CBDW means the water mass is characterised by a CFC minimum. We map the recirculation of this CBDW in the Amundsen Basin and determine its spatial and temporal variability. In particular, we find that CBDW likely flows as a boundary current going eastwards along Gakkel Ridge, and even detect CBDW-like properties on the Nansen Basin side of Gakkel Ridge. As the Arctic Ocean is changing rapidly, understanding its deep circulation and its drivers is becoming increasingly urgent.</p>

Long-lived Radioactive Elements and REE as Fingerprints of Deep Groundwater Flow

<p>Groundwater originating from great depths provide a valuable geochemical sampling medium for exploring the development of the Earth's crust, geological, and hydrogeological resources. This particularly applies to sites of natural springs, where favorable hydrogeological conditions enabled regional discharge. Despite the numerous occurrences of mineral and thermal waters in Serbia, the current understanding of the regional groundwater flow is associated with many open questions that need to be addressed. From a geological standpoint, Serbia is part of the Alpine-Mediterranean mountain belt. From the middle of the Mesozoic to the present, this area underwent processes of subduction, collision, and extensions with accompanying voluminous magmatism and volcanism. As a result of the mentioned geodynamic events, the Serbian territory was a zone of intensive tectonomagmatic processes which had a significant impact on the formation of the hydrogeological structures for forming groundwater enriched with specific elements and elevated temperatures.</p><p>Understanding groundwater origin and characterization of a deep circulation is a big challenge since the groundwater pathways and aqueous chemistry are significantly influenced by various factors. To contribute to the characterization of the hydrogeological systems in which the mineral and thermal waters of Serbia are formed, a general hydrochemical study was conducted. During this research 190 of the most significant sources of mineral and thermal waters were sampled, belonging to different geological (geotectonic) units all over Serbia. The applied hydrochemical approach of recognition of deep circulation patterns is based on an analysis of rare earth elements (REE) and natural radioactivity. REE and long-lived radionuclides <sup>40</sup>K, <sup>238</sup>U, <sup>232</sup>Th, <sup>226,228</sup>Ra, gross alpha, and beta radioactivity, have proven to be significant fingerprints of water-rock interaction as well as groundwater flow tracers.</p><p>The integrated approach of the hydrogeochemical analysis and multivariate statistical method, including spatial mapping of obtained results, was an important process for meaningful interpretation of the data set. The applied approach summarized the complex hydrochemical properties on a general level defining specific hydrochemical fingerprints of hydrogeological systems with distinct geochemical characteristics and flow patterns. Geochemical behavior of natural tracers (REE) and radioactivity contributed to further characterization of deep hydrogeological systems in basins structures, hard rocks (igneous and metamorphic rocks), as well as carbonate environments.</p><p>Rare-earth element data (including abundances and fractionation patterns along with anomalies of Ce and Eu and interelement ratios), relationships of U and Th as elements with different geochemical behavior, and the content of Ra in groundwaters have been singled out as important indicators of deep hydrogeological systems. The results showed that the isolated regional hydrogeological systems are in the function of significant tectonic structures/dislocations, but also hydrogeological characteristics and circulation conditions. Further use of the proposed methodology will provide important data from the assessment of the origin of hydro-geofluids in Serbia and contribute to the wider picture in the understanding of the hydrogeological evolution of regional groundwater flow.</p><p><strong>Keywords:</strong> natural radioactivity, rare earth elements, hydrogeochemical fingerprints, regional groundwater flow</p>

A 30-year reconstruction of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation shows no decline.

<p>A decline in Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) strength has been observed between 2004 and 2012 by the RAPID array with this weakened state of the AMOC persisting until 2017. Climate model and paleo-oceanographic re-search suggests that the AMOC may have been declining for decades or even centuries before this, however direct observations are sparse prior to 2004, giving only ‘snapshots’ of the overturning circulation. Previous studies have used linear models based on upper layer temperature anomalies to extend AMOC estimates back in time, however these ignore changes in the deep circulation that are beginning to emerge in the observations of AMOC decline. Here we develop a higher fidelity empirical model of AMOC variability based on RAPID data, and associated physically with changes in thickness of the persistent upper, intermediate and deep water masses at 26°N and associated transports. We applied historical hydrographic data to the empirical model to create an AMOC time series extending from 1981 to 2016. Increasing the resolution of the observed AMOC toapproximately annual shows multi-annual variability in agreement with RAPID observations, and that the downturn between 2008 and 2012 was the weakest AMOC since the mid-1980s. However, the time series shows no overall AMOC decline asindicated by other proxies and high resolution climate models. Our results reinforce that adequately capturing changes to thedeep circulation is key to detecting any anthropogenic climate change-related AMOC decline</p>

A 30-year reconstruction of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation shows no decline

A decline in Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) strength has been observed between 2004 and 2012 by the RAPID-MOCHA-WBTS (RAPID – Meridional Overturning Circulation and Heatflux Array – Western Boundary Time Series, hereafter RAPID array) with this weakened state of the AMOC persisting until 2017. Climate model and paleo-oceanographic research suggests that the AMOC may have been declining for decades or even centuries before this; however direct observations are sparse prior to 2004, giving only “snapshots” of the overturning circulation. Previous studies have used linear models based on upper-layer temperature anomalies to extend AMOC estimates back in time; however these ignore changes in the deep circulation that are beginning to emerge in the observations of AMOC decline. Here we develop a higher-fidelity empirical model of AMOC variability based on RAPID data and associated physically with changes in thickness of the persistent upper, intermediate, and deep water masses at 26∘ N and associated transports. We applied historical hydrographic data to the empirical model to create an AMOC time series extending from 1981 to 2016. Increasing the resolution of the observed AMOC to approximately annual shows multi-annual variability in agreement with RAPID observations and shows that the downturn between 2008 and 2012 was the weakest AMOC since the mid-1980s. However, the time series shows no overall AMOC decline as indicated by other proxies and high-resolution climate models. Our results reinforce that adequately capturing changes to the deep circulation is key to detecting any anthropogenic climate-change-related AMOC decline.