Distribution, habitat use, and nesting behavior of the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) in the Trashigang Forest Division, Eastern Bhutan

The King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor 1836), is the longest venomous snake in the world; it is globally threatened and has been categorized as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List. Herein we describe distribution, habitats, and nesting behavior of the King Cobra in Trashigang Forest Division, Bhutan. We recorded a total of 18 King Cobras during the one-year survey period. The elevational distribution was 650–2,057 m but most sightings were at lower elevations. King Cobras did not appear to prefer or avoid any particular habitat type but most records were from areas where human disturbances were at a minimum. We monitored a nest containing 37 eggs that was actively guarded by a female. This study was the first of its kind in Trashigang Forest Division and we hope that the information obtained will help formulate appropriate conservation strategies for this globally threatened species.

Comparative Investigation of Five Cobras’ Venoms Analgesic Capacity

Every day, a lot of people suffer from different types and intensity pain. Pain is probably the most common symptomatic reason to seek medical consultation. Unfortunately, despite improved knowledge of underlying mechanisms and better treatments, many people who have any type of pain receive inadequate care and non-effective drugs. Although the pain transmission channels are intensively studied, and the drug market is constantly replenished with new analgesics, it is well known that existing medications for the treatment of pain are often associated with serious side effects and rapid development of tolerance (moderate efficiency, physical dependence, respiratory arrest, suffocation, cardiac arrest, etc.). Thus, there is a need for new, more effective remedies. For this reason, despite the presence of a large number of anti-pain drugs, research and development of more effective and safe means for anaesthesia continue. Natural resources, particularly venoms, are a perspective supplier of antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory medicines. Venoms are complex mixtures of bioactive substances with high selectivity for physiological processes, including modulation of different ion channels, receptors function, and metabolic pathways. Thus, venoms represent an extensive source of molecules for the development of therapeutic agents. The goal of this study was the comparison of antinociceptive effects of five different cobras' venom antinociceptive action of cobras’ venoms was carried out under the same experimental conditions, at the same doses, during acute and inflammatory pain in mice in “formalin test”. To avoid toxic effects, the sublethal dose of each cobra venom (approximately 1/10 LD 50 ) was selected. The behavioural study showed that all tested venoms had a slight sensitizing effect in the acute phase during the first 5 min. In the second, inflammatory phase (16*25min), all tested cobra’s venoms (3μg/0.1ml, intraperitoneal) showed significant antinociceptive action, particularly the Naja naja oxiana venom decreased pain sensitivity by 48.4%, the Naja naja pallida venom by 75.4%, the Naja naja nigricincta venom by 38.5%, the Naja naja kaouthia venom by 33.2%, and the Ophiophagus Hannah venom by 78.3%, (p<0.05). The analgesic capacity of Analgin and Diclofenac under the same conditions were 77.9% and 88.7%, respectively. Thus, the Naja n. pallida and Ophiophagus Hannah venoms have shown the most expressed antinociceptive action, and they have competitive effectiveness compared to classic analgesics. They may be chosen as the most effective from tested venoms for further development of pain relief remedies.

Herpetofauna diversity and distribution based on the elevational range in West Java, Indonesia

Erawan TS, Jauhan J, Husodo T, Wulandari I, Fauzi DA, Megantara EN, Shanida SS. 2021. Herpetofauna diversity and distribution based on the elevational range in West Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 22: 4308-4319. The herpetofauna discovery in West Java is still low and has not yet described the herpetofauna community's species diversity entirely and thoroughly in West Java. It experiences high anthropogenic impacts both from infrastructure and tourism activities. If left further, herpetofauna species will become extinct locally because of anthropogenic factors. Therefore, it is essential to reveal the diversity and distribution of herpetofauna species. This study aimed to show diversity and distribution based on the elevational range in West Java. Visual Encounter Survey in combination with the Auditory Encounter Survey was applied in this study. We found 74 species where the Colubridae family were found most commonly in the study sites. Of 74 species, four species have high conservation status, including Rhacophorus reinwardtii, Ophiophagus hannah, Varanus salvator, and Malayopython reticulatus. Besides, ten species were found to be endemic to Java and Java-Bali. Based on elevation, herpetofauna is mainly located at elevations < 1000 m asl. The higher the height, the fewer the number of species found. In Amphibians, the highest number of species tend to be found at 400-1200 m asl and 1400-1700 m asl, while reptiles tend to be located at 400-900 m asl. Keywords: Auditory Encounter Survey, West Java

Ecological Niche Modelling of King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) in Nepal

The fragile ecosystem of greater Himalaya is home to diverse flora and fauna which are vulnerable to climate change impact. This study aimed to determine the suitable habitat of King Cobra Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836) in the current scenario and near-future scenario of the year 2040-2060 (RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5). Geographic coordinates of its occurrence were obtained from published literature and environmental layers were obtained from worldclim.org and processed using ArcGIS and software R. The model was developed using MaxENT algorithms. The model was validated using the area under the curve (AUC) and True skill statistics (TSS), which showed that the model is very good (AUC =0.86) and (TSS=0.6). The results showed that altitude is a prime factor affecting the distribution of King Cobra in Nepal with a percent contribution of 31% followed by actual evapotranspiration 14.4% and least by Mean diurnal range (Bio2nep) 7%. The model predicted an area of 41,214 Km2 as suitable habitat for King Cobra in Nepal. The Chitwan National Park possesses a maximum suitable area (726.89 km2) followed by Chitwan-Buffer Zone (601.68 sq. Km2) and least by Sagarmatha National Park (1.73 km2) and Shey-Phoksundo-buffer zone (1.73 Km2). Our data indicate urban areas being the most suitable sites followed by open forest covers. The projection indicates contraction of 8% and 4% in a suitable area for RCP 4.5 and RCP 2.6 respectively, whereas RCP 8.5 showed expansion of 4%. Having probably suitable habitat in urban areas research proposes frequent awareness camping about conservation and protection of vulnerable King Cobra in Nepal.

How do King Cobras move across a major highway? Unintentional wildlife crossing structures may facilitate movement.

Global road networks continue to expand, and the wildlife responses to these landscape-level changes need to be understood to advise long-term management decisions. Roads have high mortality risk to snakes because snakes typically move slowly and can be intentionally targeted by drivers. We investigated how radio-tracked King Cobras (Ophiophagus hannah) traverse a major highway in northeast Thailand, and if reproductive cycles were associated with road hazards. We surveyed a 15.3km stretch of Highway 304 to determine if there were any locations where snakes, and other wildlife, could safely move across the road (e.g., culverts, bridges). We used recurse analysis to detect possible road-crossing events, and used subsets of King Cobra movement data to create dynamic Brownian Bridge Movement Models (dBBMM) in an attempt to show movement pathways association with possible unintentional crossing structures. We further used Integrated Step Selection Functions (ISSF) to assess seasonal differences in avoidance of major roads for adult King Cobras in relation to reproductive state. We discovered 32 unintentional wildlife crossing locations capable of facilitating King Cobra movement across the highway. Our dBBMMs failed to show if underpasses were being used by telemetered individuals; however, the tracking locations pre- and post-crossing provided strong evidence of underpass use. Our ISSF suggested a lower avoidance of roads during the breeding season, though the results were inconclusive. With the high volume of traffic, large size of King Cobras and a 98.8% success rate of crossing the road in our study, we strongly suspect that individuals are using the unintentional crossing structures to safely traverse the road. Further research is needed to determine the extent of wildlife underpass use at our study site and globally, alongside using previously proven fencing to facilitate their use. We propose that more consistent integration of drainage culverts and bridges could help mitigate the impacts of roads on some terrestrial wildlife, particularly in areas where roads fragment forests and wildlife corridors.

Save The King: Human-King Cobra, Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor 1836), conflicts and the need for conservation strategies in Nepal

Abstract.—Snake research tends to have a low priority in Nepal and very little information, mostly confined to populationsin small areas, addresses the biology and threats to the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah). Herein we providedata that could facilitate an assessment of the species’ status in Nepal and begin to address its conservation needs.We recorded data on King Cobras from 2015–2020, crosschecking with previous studies to avoid any duplicationof records. A King Cobra from Siddhara, Arghakhachi District, was the first record of the species in the district. Werecorded a total of 50 King Cobra mortalities from 20 districts, with most of them killed near human settlementsadjacent to forested areas. We mapped the locations of all mortalities and recorded land-use changes within a 500-mbuffer around each site over a 30-year period (1990–2020), revealing extensive landscape fragmentation in previouslyconnected natural areas. Our data suggest that the major threats to King Cobras are deliberate killing by humans andlarge-scale habitat loss due to an increasing human population. We recommend increased research to better understandthe biology of this charismatic species and continued conservation education and community outreach programs tofacilitate the development of effective conservation strategies.