Les méthodes d’évaluation de nouveaux remèdes dans la première moitié du 19ème siècle: l’exemple des médecins genevois

Recent research on the history of medicine has shown that during the 18th century, the pharmacological market has steadily expanded. For medical practitioners, this influx of novelties triggered constant challenges to the process of cure assessment. This study analyses six historical controversies surrounding new remedies in Geneva during the first half of 19th century. The overview of fifty years of therapeutic questioning shows how Genevan practitioners managed to judge the usefulness of a specific remedy on the basis of observations – usually quite numerous – and how they started to elaborate methodological principles underlying a populational approach.

The Contemporary Middle East

As historic issues continue to fester, historical controversies resurface with renewed intensity, and new threats to global security arise, the contemporary Middle East remains a hotbed of activity and the epicenter of international attention. Even as the “Arab Spring” has transformed the complexion of the region, reoccurring issues such as the Arab-Israeli conflict and the Sunni-Shia divide still languish. Civil wars in Syria and Yemen convulse the area, Iraq struggles to reconstitute itself, and Iran moves ominously into the nuclear age. Islamic fundamentalism, terrorism, internecine conflict, and civil war have made the area a veritable crucible that has jeopardized regional stability and resurrected superpower rivalries.

Historical controversies about the thalamus: from etymology to function

The authors report on and discuss the historical evolution of the 3 intellectual and scientific domains essential for the current understanding of the function of the human thalamus: 1) the identification of the thalamus as a distinct anatomical and functional entity, 2) the subdivision of thalamic gray matter into functionally homogeneous units (the thalamic nuclei) and relative disputes about nuclei nomenclature, and 3) experimental physiology and its limitations.Galen was allegedly the first to identify the thalamus. The etymology of the term remains unknown although it is hypothesized that Galen may have wanted to recall the thalamus of Odysseus. Burdach was the first to clearly and systematically define the thalamus and its macroscopic anatomy, which paved the way to understanding its internal microarchitecture. This structure in turn was studied in both nonhuman primates (Friedemann) and humans (Vogt and Vogt), leading to several discrepancies in the findings because of interspecies differences. As a consequence, two main nomenclatures developed, generating sometimes inconsistent (or nonreproducible) anatomo-functional correlations. Recently, considerable effort has been aimed at producing a unified nomenclature, based mainly on functional data, which is indispensable for future developments. The development of knowledge about macro- and microscopic anatomy has allowed a shift from the first galenic speculations about thalamic function (the “thalamus opticorum nervorum”) to more detailed insights into the sensory and motor function of the thalamus in the 19th and 20th centuries. This progress is mostly the result of lesion and tracing studies. Direct evidence of the in vivo function of the human thalamus, however, originates from awake stereotactic procedures only.Our current knowledge about the function of the human thalamus is the result of a long process that occurred over several centuries and has been inextricably intermingled with the increasing accumulation of data about thalamic macro- and microscopic anatomy. Although the thalamic anatomy can currently be considered well understood, further studies are still needed to gain a deeper insight into the function of the human thalamus in vivo.

As vertentes do Jusnaturalismo e a atualidade temática do Direito Natural

RESUMOO debate que envolve o Jusnaturalismo e o Juspositivismo tem inspirado as reflexões de juristas e filósofos. Muito embora se possa afirmar que grande parte das históricas controvérsias associadas ao confronto entre o Direito Positivo e o Direito Natural já tenham sido superadas, subsistem inúmeros aspectos que merecem uma dedicação acadêmica. Não obstante opiniões divergentes, as quais pugnam pelo enfraquecimento teórico do assunto, o passar dos séculos demonstra justamente o contrário, posto não ter conseguido eliminar a estima dos pensadores pela temática ora desenvolvida. Deste modo, o presente artigo discorre sobre as diversas vertentes históricas (Cosmológica, Teológica e Racional) do Jusnaturalismo, analisando, ainda, a atualidade temática do Direito Natural.PALAVRAS-CHAVETeoria do Direito. Direito Natural. Jusnaturalismo. Juspositivismo. ABSTRACTThe debate regarding Jusnaturalism and Juspositivism has been inspiring the reflections of jurists and philosophers for a long time. Although it may be affirmed that a great deal of the historical controversies associated to the confrontation between the Positive Law and Natural Law has already been overcome, there are numerous aspects which deserve an academic dedication. Notwithstanding divergent opinions, which struggle for the theoretical weakening of the subject, the passing of the centuries demonstrates precisely the opposite, given that it could not eliminate the esteem of the thinkers for the subject in discussion. Therefore, the current work analyses the characteristics of the various historical strands of Jusnaturalism (Cosmological, Theological and Rational), as well as the current usage of the Natural Law.KEYWORDSLegal theory. Natural Law. Jusnaturalism. Juspositivism.

Introduction

This chapter examines common arguments surrounding the Electoral College. Many of these arguments were present with the 2016 presidential election. The election marked the sixth time the popular vote winner did not win the Electoral College vote. It also witnessed the largest number of faithless votes for president in history. Lastly, it marked the second time in the last three elections that a state split its electoral vote total. Each represents a common criticism of the institution. Proponents of the body suggested the institution worked as it should—especially in regard to protecting the interests of less populated states and supporting the two-party system. All arguments over the Electoral College ultimately relate to issues over representation. The chapter concludes by examining historical controversies relating to the Electoral College and several reform efforts aimed at the body.

Guiding students in Singapore to investigate historical controversy using a disciplinary approach

In this article, we make the case for teaching historical controversy on disciplinary and educational grounds. We outline an approach for teaching controversial history topics that engages students with authentic historical problems, such as historical controversies or actual debates taken up by historians, and allows students to participate in history as an interpretative enterprise. The disciplinary approach we suggest can also help teachers practically manage the challenges of teaching contentious topics by drawing on the disciplinary methods and standards used in history. Teaching controversial topics is challenging in many contexts, and in this article we highlight some of the challenges teachers in Singapore face when teaching controversial topics in history classrooms. We also draw on research that examines the conceptions Singaporean students hold about history and the nature of accounts in history. We argue that teaching historical controversy can help students develop their conceptual understanding of historical accounts, understand the nature of history as a discipline, and build their historical knowledge. We conclude by arguing that in a time of widespread access to multiple and often competing accounts about past and present in social media, a discipline-based history education is more important than ever.