The Gendered Body Project: Motivational Components of Objectification Theory

In this chapter, we attempt to explore the motivational questions that arise when we view the psychology of women through the lens of objectification theory, which highlights the centrality of appearance concerns, or “body projects,” for girls and women today. We examine theoretical perspectives on what motivates the sexual objectification of women, considering the ways this treatment may reflect an adaptive evolutionary mating strategy, may serve as a tool for the maintenance of patriarchal power, or may lend existential “protection” against the creaturely, death reminders that women's bodies provide. We then investigate both developmental processes and situational/contextual features that motivate girls and women to internalize a sexually objectifying view on their physical selves. And, finally, we review evidence that self-objectification, though motivating in itself, carries significant consequences for their health and well-being.

Social Cognitive Theory and Motivation

Social cognitive theory is a theory of psychological functioning that emphasizes learning from the social environment. This chapter focuses on Bandura's social cognitive theory, which postulates reciprocal interactions among personal, behavioral, and social/environmental factors. Persons use various vicarious, symbolic, and self-regulatory processes as they strive to develop a sense of agency in their lives. Key motivational processes are goals and self-evaluations of progress, outcome expectations, values, social comparisons, and self-efficacy. People set goals and evaluate their goal progress. The perception of progress sustains self-efficacy and motivation. Individuals act in accordance with their values and strive for outcomes they desire. Social comparisons with others provide further information on their learning and goal attainment. Self-efficacy is an especially critical influence on motivation and affects task choices, effort, persistence, and achievement. Suggestions are given for future research directions.

Work Motivation: Directing, Energizing, and Maintaining Effort (and Research)

This chapter provides an overview of contemporary research on work motivation. We start by identifying the central premises, controversies, and unanswered questions related to five core theoretical perspectives on work motivation: expectancy theory, equity theory, goal-setting theory, job design, and self-determination theory. We then discuss four current topics and new directions: collective motivation and organizing, temporal dynamics, creativity, and the effects of rewards.

The Role of Death in Life: Existential Aspects of Human Motivation

The capacity for self-reflection, which plays an important role in human self-regulation, also leads people to become aware of the limitations of their existence. Awareness of the conflict between one's desires (e.g., to live) and the limitations of existence (e.g., the inevitability of death) creates the potential for existential anxiety. In this chapter, we review how this anxiety affects human motivation and behavior in a variety of life domains. Terror management theory and research suggest that transcending death and protecting oneself against existential anxiety are potent needs. This protection is provided by an anxiety-buffering system, which imbues people with a sense of meaning and value that function to shield them against these concerns. We review evidence of how the buffering system protects against existential anxiety in four dimensions of existence: the physical, personal, social, and spiritual domains. Because self-awareness is a prerequisite for existential anxiety, escaping self-awareness can also be an effective way to obviate the problem of existence. After elaborating on how existential anxiety can motivate escape from self-awareness, we conclude the chapter with a discussion of remaining issues and directions for future research and theory development.

Motivation, Personality, and Development Within Embedded Social Contexts: An Overview of Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory maintains and has provided empirical support for the proposition that all human beings have fundamental psychological needs to be competent, autonomous, and related to others. Satisfaction of these basic needs facilitates people's autonomous motivation (i.e., acting with a sense of full endorsement and volition), whereas thwarting the needs promotes controlled motivation (i.e., feeling pressured to behave in particular ways) or being amotivated (i.e., lacking intentionality). Satisfying these basic needs and acting autonomously have been consistently shown to be associated with psychological health and effective performance. Social contexts within which people operate, however proximal (e.g., a family or workgroup) or distal (e.g., a cultural value or economic system), affect their need satisfaction and type of motivation, thus affecting their wellness and effectiveness. Social contexts also affect whether people's life goals or aspirations tend to be more intrinsic or more extrinsic, and that in turn affects important life outcomes.

Youth Motivation and Participation in Sport and Physical Activity

Sports and physical activities are ubiquitous achievement contexts for children and adolescents worldwide. Motivation to initiate, continue, and sustain physical activity involvement is important for ensuring positive developmental and healthy outcomes. In this chapter we synthesize and consolidate theory-driven knowledge about determinants and outcomes of youth motivation and participation in sport and physical activity. First, we discuss relevant theoretical frameworks for understanding youth motivation in the physical activity domain. Second, we review empirical research on social-contextual factors and individual differences related to youths’ desire to continue physical activity and opportunities for accruing the many benefits from such participation. Finally, based on our review of literature, we offer several avenues for future research that address gaps in the knowledge base about mechanisms of influence on youths’ motivation and participation in physical activity.

The Motivational Complexity of Choosing: A Review of Theory and Research

Years of research have implicated a complex set of motivational causes and consequences of choice. Psychological theory has often prescribed the benefits of choosing, though limitations to this view of choice as being ubiquitously positive are apparent. In this chapter, the relation between choice and motivation is examined. Conceptualizations of choice as both an outcome of motivation and a motivational experience are described. The benefits and determinants of receiving and perceiving choice for motivation are then discussed according to various psychological theories. Next, the complex and often contradictory findings regarding the relation between choice and motivation are discussed in light of various factors (e.g., characteristics of choices, persons, and situations) that may influence those effects. Issues that have yet to be adequately addressed in the research on choice effects and the directions that future research might take are briefly discussed.

Moods of Energy and Tension That Motivate

Moods are perfect barometers of physiological and psychological functioning. Two biopsychological dimensions, Energetic and Tense Arousal, are keys to understanding moods. These dimensions interact under different activating conditions to form four complex moods that range from calm energy (pleasurable mood associated with full attentional focus, happiness, optimism, favorable athletic performance, and self-control) to tense tiredness (bad mood associated with depression, negative perception of problems, yielding to unwanted urges such as sugar snacking or smoking). Two other complex moods include tense energy (moderately positive state that combines vigor with moderate tension) and calm tiredness (ideal for restful sleep). Energetic and tense arousal are associated with many kinds of motivational processes, including various strategies of self-regulation (best strategy combines relaxation techniques, exercise, and cognitive control). Important to these moods are natural processes such as health, sleep, diet, diurnal energy cycles, movement (exercise), and stress. These moods are mediated by general bodily arousal states.

Avoiding the Pitfalls and Approaching the Promises of Close Relationships

People are powerfully motivated to form and maintain social relationships. Indeed, health and well-being are strongly tied to the course and quality of social bonds. However, while close relationships provide people with many advantages such as intimacy and social support, relationships can also be a detriment, such as when they are wrought with hostility and potential rejection. We present a framework of social and relationship motivation that simultaneously accounts for people's tendencies to both approach the incentives and avoid the threats in close relationships. Research examining the correlates of approach and avoidance motives and goals in relationships is reviewed and mediating mechanisms are explored. The implications and advantages of an approach and avoidance model of social motivation are highlighted and future research directions are discussed.

Ego Depletion: Theory and Evidence

Self-control all too often fails. Despite people's best intentions and considerable negative outcomes, people often find themselves at the losing end of resisting temptation, combating urges, and changing their behavior. One reason for these failures may be that exerting self-control depletes a limited resource (ego depletion) that is necessary for the success of self-control. Hence, after exerting self-control individuals are less able to resist temptations, fight urges, or stop a behavior, which results in a loss of self-control. This chapter reviews the evidence for this theory in a wide variety of domains and examines what behaviors appear to deplete ego strength and how depletion affects behavior. A comprehensive theory that examines how depletion operates is put forth and this theory is used to examine some factors that might moderate the depletion effect.