Physical consequences of a general excess of charge

The possibility of a general excess of charge in the universe is proposed. If such exists, even to the extent of only 2 parts in 10 18 , sufficiently powerful electric forces result to produce the observed expansion of the universe on the basis of Newtonian mechanics. If the excess occurs as a slight difference in magnitude of the proton and electron charges, the hypothesis may be on the verge of what could be established by experiment. If creation of matter, and also necessarily charge, is assumed, the Maxwell equations must be modified to avoid strict conservation. The appropriate modification is shown to involve additional terms in the current and charge-density equations proportional to the vector and scalar potentials. When applied to a spherically symmetrical smoothed-out universe, the revised equations establish almost rigorously that electrical requirements imply a strict velocitydistance law for the mass motion of expansion. For agreement with observation, the requisite charge on the proton would be (1 + y ) e where y = 2 x 10 -18 , or, if the charges are strictly equal in magnitude, it requires 1 + y protons for every electron, with the same value of y . The value of the Hubble constant and of the smoothed-out density of matter in the universe are shown to be simply related by the theory to the rate of creation. The same solution is shown to hold equally in de Sitter space-time, and the principle of complete equivalence of all observers at all times is thereby demonstrated to be a property of the solution. Construction of the corresponding stress-energy tensor enables the factor associated with the new terms in the Maxwell equations to be directly related to the observable radius of the universe. On the first form of the charge-excess hypothesis, galaxies and clusters of galaxies (with their haloes) arise as ionized condensation units within the general background distribution. Since the units are conducting, they remain electrically neutral, and therefore grow and are controlled by ordinary gravitational forces. Moreover, because they are conducting, the units will expel their excess charge in the form of free protons. It is shown that the electrostatic potential at the surface of a unit is maintained by creation at such a value that the protons are expelled with energies corresponding to the highest energy cosmic rays. These units will take part in the general expansion, not under the direct action of the electric repulsion, but because they form and grow from the expanding background material. Any small departure in velocity of a unit from the local value would be quickly removed through the gravitational braking action associated with accretion of further material. The gravitational potential at the surface of a unit is such that infalling hydrogen atoms will have energy of motion corresponding to temperature of the order of a million degrees, and the outer parts of the units at least will be at high temperature.