A cognitive neuroscience perspective on insight as a memory process: Searching for the solution.

What are the cognitive and brain processes that lead to an insight? This is one of two chapters on "A cognitive neuroscience perspective on insight as a memory process" to be published in the "Routledge International Handbook of Creative Cognition" by L. J. Ball & F. Valleé-Tourangeau (Eds.). In this chapter, we will describe the insight solution process from a neurocognitive perspective. Inspired by cognitive theories, we translate some of insight's main cognitive subprocesses (problem representation, search, representational change, solution) into related neurocognitive ones and summarize them in a descriptive framework. Those described processes focus primarily on verbal insight and are explained using the remote associates task. In this task, the solver is provided with several problem elements (e.g. drop, coat, summer) and needs to find the (remotely related) target that matches those cues (e.g., rain). In a nutshell, insight is the consequence of a problem-solving process where the target is encoded in long-term memory but cannot be retrieved at first because the relationship between the problem elements and the target is unknown, precluding a simple memory search. Upon problem display, the problem elements and a whole network of associated concepts are automatically activated in long-term memory in distinct areas of the brain representing those concepts (=problem representation). Insight is assumed to occur when automatic processes suddenly activate the target after control processes associated with inferior frontal gyrus and anterior cingulate cortex activation manage to overcome prior knowledge and/or perceptual constraints by revising the current activation pattern (=representational change). The next chapter (https://psyarxiv.com/bevjm) will focus on the role of insight problem solving for long-term memory formation.

A critique of the English national policy from a social determinants of health perspective using a realist and problem representation approach: the ‘Childhood Obesity: a plan for action’ (2016, 2018, 2019)

Background The UK government released Chapter 1 of the ‘Childhood Obesity: a plan for action’ (2016), followed by Chapter 2 (2018) and preliminary Chapter 3 was published for consultation in 2019 (hereon collectively ‘The Policy’). The stated policy aims were to reduce the prevalence of childhood obesity in England, addressing disparities in health by reducing the gap (approximately two-fold) in childhood obesity between those from the most and least deprived areas. Methods Combining a realist approach with an analysis of policy discourses, we analysed the policies using a social determinants of health (SDH) perspective (focusing on socio-economic inequalities). This novel approach reveals how the framing of policy ‘problems’ leads to particular approaches and interventions. Results While recognising a social gradient in relation to obesity measures, we critique obesity problem narratives. The Policy included some upstream, structural approaches (e.g. restrictions in food advertising and the soft-drinks industry levy). However, the focus on downstream individual-level behavioural approaches to reduce calorie intake and increase physical activity does not account for the SDH and the complexity and contestedness of ‘obesity’ and pays insufficient attention to how proposals will help to reduce inequalities. Our findings illustrate that individualising of responsibility to respond to what wider evidence shows is structural inequalities, can perpetuate damaging narratives and lead to ineffective interventions, providing caution to academics, practitioners and policy makers (local and national), of the power of problem representation. Our findings also show that the problem framing in The Policy risks reducing important public health aims to encourage healthy diets and increase opportunities for physical activity (and the physical and mental health benefits of both) for children to weight management with a focus on particular children. Conclusions We propose an alternative conceptualisation of the policy ‘problem’, that obesity rates are illustrative of inequality, arguing there needs to be policy focus on the structural and factors that maintain health inequalities, including poverty and food insecurity. We hope that our findings can be used to challenge and strengthen future policy development, leading to more effective action against health inequalities and intervention-generated inequalities in health.

Decision Premises, Learning and Organizational Resilience Addressing Novel Adversities

Organizational resilience is traditionally associated with the ability to understand and to respond to the ongoing situation, even under unusual conditions. The capability to detect novel and unexpected situations plays a fundamental role in this process. Following (Simon‚ 1991), we believe that decision premises affect the problem representation and, ultimately, the possibility to detect, interpret and respond to novel situations, thus enhancing resilience. From this perspective, the ability to expand the perceptual limits of observation and to conceive a novel representation of the problem requires revising the initial decision premises. This theory of how organizations learn how to solve novel problems provides the foundation to introduce a role designed to legitimately challenge the decision premises and, ultimately, the spectrum of alternatives that are taken into consideration as possible solutions. To illustrate our proposal to increase organizational resilience, we introduce an exemplary real case stemming from the practice of the emergency management organizations under scrutiny of our research team; this case is reconstructed as a conversational narrative of the two key participants.

Problem Representation in Occupational Therapy

<p>Clinical reasoning is a fundamental component of occupational therapy practice. Educators, researchers and clinicians are faced with the challenge of understanding and fostering the acquisition of clinical reasoning skills. The aim of this study was to examine the internal problem representations held by students and clinicians in respect of clients they had been treating for a period of time. Such representations form the basis on which treatment is formulated so are highly influential in the clinical reasoning process. The ultimate purpose of the study was to identify educational strategies that could be used to assist students to develop clinical reasoning skills. Understandings gained from the literature and from observation, indicated that there would be differences between novices and experts and that the work setting would affect problem representation. Thus the influence of experience and location was the primary focus of the study. To place the study within the context of the occupational therapy literature, the beliefs underlying problem representation were also explored to determine whether or not these were consistent with the philosophical assumptions identified in the literature. The method of investigation was an interview with pre-determined questions. The interview was consistent with the theory base of the study (ie. information processing), but the analysis also included the investigation of qualitative aspects. To ensure a developmental perspective was gained, respondents included students on two different levels of an occupational therapy course and clinicians who were currently practicing. The total number of respondents was 67 ie. 14 stage II students, 31 stage III students (ie. in their final year) and 22 clinicians. The study illustrated that the environmental context affects problem representation in respect of both the amount of data to be considered and the nature of that data. Differences between students' and clinicians' representation of the problem were related to qualitative aspects rather than identification of the elements relevant to treatment planning. In particular, clinicians were more able to elaborate on the data, justify their responses and provide a humanistic perspective beyond the more technical aspects of knowing the clients concerns. The beliefs governing thinking about treatment, demonstrated consistency with the occupational therapy literature (apart from one assumption). A major finding of this study is that the development of schemata related to practice areas is the basis of sound reasoning and justification of treatment planning decisions. Both domain specific knowledge and an understanding of the environmental context are important to the forming of these schemata. The implication for teaching is that the wealth of experiential knowledge that is gained by students while on clinical practice should be tapped to enable them to make links with academic knowledge and thus develop a comprehensive problem representation.</p>

Problem Representation in Occupational Therapy

<p>Clinical reasoning is a fundamental component of occupational therapy practice. Educators, researchers and clinicians are faced with the challenge of understanding and fostering the acquisition of clinical reasoning skills. The aim of this study was to examine the internal problem representations held by students and clinicians in respect of clients they had been treating for a period of time. Such representations form the basis on which treatment is formulated so are highly influential in the clinical reasoning process. The ultimate purpose of the study was to identify educational strategies that could be used to assist students to develop clinical reasoning skills. Understandings gained from the literature and from observation, indicated that there would be differences between novices and experts and that the work setting would affect problem representation. Thus the influence of experience and location was the primary focus of the study. To place the study within the context of the occupational therapy literature, the beliefs underlying problem representation were also explored to determine whether or not these were consistent with the philosophical assumptions identified in the literature. The method of investigation was an interview with pre-determined questions. The interview was consistent with the theory base of the study (ie. information processing), but the analysis also included the investigation of qualitative aspects. To ensure a developmental perspective was gained, respondents included students on two different levels of an occupational therapy course and clinicians who were currently practicing. The total number of respondents was 67 ie. 14 stage II students, 31 stage III students (ie. in their final year) and 22 clinicians. The study illustrated that the environmental context affects problem representation in respect of both the amount of data to be considered and the nature of that data. Differences between students' and clinicians' representation of the problem were related to qualitative aspects rather than identification of the elements relevant to treatment planning. In particular, clinicians were more able to elaborate on the data, justify their responses and provide a humanistic perspective beyond the more technical aspects of knowing the clients concerns. The beliefs governing thinking about treatment, demonstrated consistency with the occupational therapy literature (apart from one assumption). A major finding of this study is that the development of schemata related to practice areas is the basis of sound reasoning and justification of treatment planning decisions. Both domain specific knowledge and an understanding of the environmental context are important to the forming of these schemata. The implication for teaching is that the wealth of experiential knowledge that is gained by students while on clinical practice should be tapped to enable them to make links with academic knowledge and thus develop a comprehensive problem representation.</p>

Problematising ‘education’ in the Modernisation Agenda for Higher Education: The onset of language(s) of education

Starting from the assumption that ‘education’ in higher education (HE) is a floating signifier and can take on different meanings, we problematise the problem representations regarding the notion of ‘education’ in HE. We hereby focus on the analysis of problem representations in a set of Communications on the Modernisation Agenda for Higher Education by the European Commission. Drawing on Bacchi’s method What’s the Problem Represented to be, we look at two policy solutions and their related problem representations. Using Pollack’s term ‘creeping competence’, and drawing on previous research, we identify within these problem representations and policy solutions, a double creeping competence. Secondly, we problematise these problem representations and creeping competences from an educational perspective. The first problem representation is problematised as being instrumental and monofunctional. By contrast, we look at what it means to look at HE as worthy in and of itself, and as having multiple purposes at once. The second problem representation of a language of learning is problematised by suggesting the onset of language(s) of education. We conclude that further research is needed to pursue this articulation of these languages of education and hence to explore other possible articulations of education in HE.

Architectural project appraisal: an active learning process [Valutazione del progetto architettonico: un processo di apprendimento attivo]

Reflecting on how economic evaluation is taught in architecture courses opens up a discussion between those who structure problems with design and those who structure problems with different approaches (specifically estimation approaches) and where this design and these methods can intersect and hybridise. The paper presents some reflections, and a methodological proposal, related to the way of teaching economic evaluation in architecture courses. The aim of this paper is to propose an integrated assessment operative framework applied according to the active learning strategy, aimed at supporting students in dealing with design decision-making processes in a structured way and providing them with a problem representation scheme. Riflettere sulle modalità insegnamento della valutazione economica nei corsi di architettura consente di aprire una discussione tra chi struttura i problemi con il progetto e chi struttura i problemi con approcci diversi (nello specifico quelli estimativi) e dove questo progetto e questi metodi si possono incrociare e ibridare. L’articolo illustra alcune riflessioni, e una proposta metodologica, relative alla modalità di insegnamento della valutazione economica nei corsi di architettura. Lo scopo di questo documento è di proporre un quadro operativo di valutazione integrato applicato secondo la strategia dell’apprendimento attivo, volto a sostenere gli studenti nell’affrontare processi decisionali di progettazione in modo strutturato e a fornire loro uno schema di rappresentazione del problema.

Producing gender-blind drug knowledge and representations in prison spaces

Purpose This paper aims to examine knowledge production and problem representation with regard to new psychoactive substances (NPS) in Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Prisons (HMCIP) annual reports. Design/methodology/approach Seven annual reports published by HMCIP for England and Wales between 2014 and 2020 have been systematically reviewed drawing on thematic analysis. Findings This paper demonstrates how framing in HMCIP annual reports produced a characterisation of NPS in prisons that inadvertently obstructed gender-sensitive knowledge production and problem representation. The framing formalised knowledge silences about spice in women’s prisons. Originality/value HMCIP annual reports monitor drugs in prisons and this affects how these spaces are represented to government and other stakeholders. This paper provides theoretical and practical insights into how gender-blind knowledge is produced by discussing examples of gender-blind drug representations in a specific policy context.