Medieval Bologna

The medieval period in Bologna spans from the end of the Gothic War in 553 ce to 1401, when Giovanni I Bentivoglio proclaimed himself signore of Bologna. After the Gothic War, in the mid-6th century, at first Etruscan and later Roman settlement of Bologna came within the sphere of influence of the Exarchate of Ravenna and subsequently in the hands first of the Carolingians and then of the kings of Italy (9th–10th centuries). The city was governed by a count, like the other regions under Carolingian dominion, and then by a duke. From the 10th and particularly the 11th century, a period of economic recovery, Bologna expanded beyond the city walls, with modest dwellings housing artisans who were moving in from the countryside. At the end of the 11th century, Bologna reached a turning point in its history, with the emergence of the university—in particular, the law school. In the following centuries, students converged on Bologna from all over Europe, and the city managed to meet the needs of large numbers of students. In the 12th century the merchants, artisans, and professional classes established an autonomous form of government, the commune. Together with the other cities of northern Italy, Bologna was part of the Lombard League, and it fought against the emperor Frederick Barbarossa, who laid claim to the government of the city. The city emerged from that conflict in a state of full autonomy. In the 1150s, the second circle of defenses was constructed, the Torresotti walls, but it proved to be inadequate. In the late 1220s, a much more extensive circle of defenses was constructed, which to this day marks the limits of the historic city center. During the 13th century, various forms of city government were adopted. At the beginning of the century the government was controlled by aristocrats and entrepreneurs, giving way to a popular government (Comune di Popolo) from the middle of the century. The political tensions between the various social strata gave rise to a period of insecurity, resulting in a government intended to safeguard the economy. Various forms of government were set up in the 14th century by internal and external rulers: the local Pepoli family, and Milan’s Visconti. But the greatest threat to Bologna’s autonomy was the papacy, and the regimes of Cardinal du Pouget, Cardinal legate Guillaume de Noellet. In 1376 there was a reassertion of the Commune.

A Case for Coexistence of Different Potting Practices – Baltic Ware in Latvia

Latvia in the 11th–13th century poses a curious case for the coexistence of two different practices of Baltic ware production. The Baltic ware pots from lower reaches of the River Daugava and from the Courland region look not just stylistically, but also technologically different. Our paper assessed the production traces by using macro-observations, Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) and extensive ethnographic material of Slavic pottery production of the 1900s, as well as using modern replicas as visual aids to assist in the identification of the principal coil attachment methods. The results showed that potters from the lower reaches of Daugava used the wheel’s rotation extensively during the shaping process of Baltic ware. The production of the pots required the potter to possess a level of technical skill which implied a level of professionalisation. Baltic ware from Courland was less technically complicated and used comparatively more of the methods of handmade pottery production.

Sklářský výrobní okruh z 2. poloviny 13. století u Jilmové v Krušných horách Přínos analytických metod pro poznání technologie výroby středověkého skla v Čechách / The glass production area near Jilmová in the Ore Mountains from the second half of the 13th century The contribution of analytical methods for studying glass production technology in medieval Bohemia

The study contains the latest knowledge concerning glass production at the beginning of the High Middle Ages in one of the oldest glass production areas in the Ore Mountains consisting of three glassworks located in the upper reaches of the mountains. The work presents archaeological sources obtained in excavations at the Jilmová I, II and III sites, with attention being focused on finds specific to glass production centres, i.e., mainly fragments of technical ceramics – melting pots, crucibles and the waste accompanying various stages of glass production. The classic typological­morphological analysis is accompanied by a detailed archaeometric analysis. The results of spectrometric analyses (XRF, XRD, SEM–EDS and LA–ICP–MS) expand the informative value of archaeological finds and help refine existing knowledge of glass production technology in the second half of the 13th century.

The Lost Fresco Paintings of the Inkerman Cave Churches (“Temple with Baptistery”, “Church of Geography”, Monastery of Saint Sophia)

Introduction. Among the “cave towns” of Mountainous Southwestern Crimea, there are monuments located in the lower reaches of the Black River valley. There are no less than 9 rock-cut monastic complexes which include about 30 temples. Methods. Some churches of the 13th–15th centuries were decorated with fresco paintings. Today, frescoes have been preserved only in one church. Sources of the 18th–20th centuries indicate traces of paintings in more than five temples. Frescoes inside the “temple with baptistery”, “Church of Geography (Eugraphy)”, and the Monastery of St. Sophia have not survived. Archival materials that expose the plots and compositions are published in this work. Analysis. The frescoes of the “temple with baptistery” date back to the 13th century. The Deesis composition is reconstructed in the apse conch. In the “Church of Geography (Eugraphy)” (the 13th century), on each side of the throne, four figures of saints are depicted (The Holy Fathers composition). This is probably: John Chrysostom, Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great, Cyril of Alexandria, Gregory of Nyssa, Athanasius of Alexandria and two more saints from among the Cappadocian Fathers. One of them is obviously St. Blaise. This painting in general terms repeats the traditional scheme of the lower register of the painting of the apses of the cave temples of the mountainous Crimea. The monastery of St. Sofia should be dated back to the 14th–15th centuries. During the period of the monastery’s functioning, there were fresco paintings in the Main Church and Church no. 3, but all the attempts to attribute them were unsuccessful. Results. The analyzed frescoes show themes of Deesis and the Great Cappadocians. They are common for altar compositions in cave temples in South-West Crimea. In the interiors of the cave temples of Inkerman, there are: simple linear ornaments, complex plant reports, linear ornaments with complex weaving and plant elements.

The Byzantine Military Strategy in Asia Minor During the Early Palaiologan Period (1259–1328)

Introduction. The purpose of the article is to determine the specifics of the Byzantine war strategy in Asia Minor. A qualitative military and political characteristics of the main military expeditions to the eastern borders are crucial for the disclosure of this problem. From this aspect, the study addresses the following issues: defining of the role of the eastern military campaigns in the complex of military-strategic measures on the state scale; characteristics of the features the armed forces used, as well as the tasks solved during military expeditions to Asia Minor; disclosure of the features of military-technical measures to ensure the security of Byzantium eastern borders. Methods. Critical use of elements of civilizational, formational and systemic approaches is the methodological basis of this study. It should be noted that the use of a systematic approach in the analysis of the Byzantine troops combat practice in east direction, allows to determine the strategic objectives of military expeditions in Asia Minor, to reveal the logic of warfare in the eastern theater, to determine the functional purpose of military-technical measures. Analysis and Results. The study reveals the strategic concept of Byzantium armed forces military operations during the reign of the first Palaeologus on the Asia Minor territory. Analysis of combat practice allows us to conclude that the strategic priority of the western and northwestern directions, which required the use of the most combat-ready troops consisting of mercenaries during the reign of Michael VIII, determined the need to use the Byzantine troops at the eastern borders of the empire. TheByzantine army was episodically involved in major defensive expeditions to the borders of the empire. We determined that the purpose of these campaigns is to stop the advance of enemy armies and their subsequent expulsion from the empire. This logic of military operations does not mean the loss of strategic initiative at the eastern direction. The strategy of passive defense which determined the nature of the military confrontation in the Asia Minor region was ensured by the creation of a garrison system, or a line of fortresses, on the eastern borders of the empire. Fortification activities of Michael VIII and Andronikos II in 1280–1282 temporarily stopped the advance of the Turkish troops. However, natural factors and the intensification of the economic crisis at the end of the 13th century made it impossible to preserve the defensive line located along the banks of the rivers that served as the borders of the Byzantine state. In addition, the strengthening of the military-political power of the emirates of Menteşe, Aydinoglu and Osman led to the loss of the initiative by the Byzantine troops and, as a result, the reduction of the Asia Minor territories of the empire. In an effort to change the situation, Andronicus II proceeded to implement an active defense strategy.

Ceramics of the Middle East from the Excavation of the Eski-Kermen Site

Introduction. Three exemplars of Middle Eastern fritware of the 12th–13th centuries, which were first discovered on the territory of a Byzantine town on the Eski-Kermen plateau during the excavations in 2018 and 2019, are presented in the article. They belong to the three different decorative groups, which had not been found in the Crimea before and are rather rare in the archaeological sites of Eastern Europe in general. Methods. The methods of archaeology and art history are involved in the study. First of all these are a stratigraphic method for the chronology of the contexts and artifacts, as well as a comparative method to identify the origin of finds. Analysis. The vessels under study belong to different decorative and stylistic groups of oriental ceramics. The plate and one jug find parallels among the products of the Raqqa workshops from the first half to mid 12th century and late 12th to mid 13th century. Another jug most likely comes from Iran and can be dated to the 12th–13th centuries. Results. These kinds of vessels were not very common outside the region of their production. At least we have very little information about these facts now. So the finds from Eski-Kermen are important for expanding the area of distribution of these types of fritwares. In addition, their presence in a small provincial Byzantine town indicates the residence there in the 12th–13th centuries of the local elites, who could get and own such expensive and quite rare things.

Prussian territorial and settlement associations in the basin of the middle Łyna in the 13th century

Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie pruskich związków terytorialno-osadniczych w okresie przedkrzyżackim na obszarze środkowej Łyny, na terenie późniejszego Olsztyna. W pierwszej kolejności została omówiona literatura dotycząca charakteru i form pruskich związków terytorialnych. Następnie została podjęta próba identyfikacji i lokalizacji tych stosunków na ww. terytorium. Zidentyfikowano czternaście pruskich pól, tzw. lauksów (najmniejszych jednostek terytorialno-osadniczych). Pamięć o nich, w zasadzie również ich nazwy pochodzą z czasów pogańskich, były one wymienione w źródłach krzyżackich z okresu kolonizacji. Później zostały omówione i zidentyfikowane związki terytorialne niższego rzędu, które występują w źródłach pod nazwą „ziemi“ (łac. terra, territorium). Były to ziemie: Gudikus (w okolicach Stękin, Godek i Kajn), Gunelauken (w okolicach od Barczewka po Barczewo, od Odryt i Jedzbarka po Tuławki i Tęguty) oraz Berting (w okolicach m.in. Bartąga i Gągławek). Olsztyn najprawdopodobniej leżał w obrębie ziemi Berting. Uznano za słuszne stwierdzenie, że komornictwa z czasów krzyżackich były tworzone na ziemiach pruskich. Przykładem tego jest ziemia Berting oraz komornictwa olsztyńskie i barczewskie. Na podstawie „castrum Hirsberg” postawiono tezę, że przynajmniej na większych ziemiach znajdowały się mniejsze tereny, które odpowiadały okręgom grodowym. Na ogół każda ziemia posiadała własne centrum kultowe położone na pograniczu. Badany obszar należał do dwóch plemion – Berting i Gunelauken do Galindii (Olsztyn leżał więc w jej obrębie), a Gudikus najprawdopodobniej do Pogezanii. Niniejsze badania, ograniczone do niewielkiego obszaru, przyniosły obiecujące efekty, należałoby je kontynuować na pozostałym obszarze. Pozwolą one na dokładniejsze niż w dotychczasowej historiografii poznanie struktury i charakteru związków terytorialnych poszczególnych plemion pruskich, jak też częściowo ich sieci osadniczej przed podbojem krzyżackim.

„compassio“, Leidenschaft, Ekstase

Expressions and gestures of mourning for the loved one have been a theme of religious art from early on. In the Middle Ages, after the discovery of the suffering Christ (“Christus patiens”), they are shown in numerous depictions of the crucifixion, especially in those of the taking down of the cross. Since the 13th century, the attitude of “compassion”, which commemorates Christ’s act of redemption and, according to theological interpretation, thereby brings about one’s own salvation, has promoted empathy with the other. After the theme had been increasingly treated aesthetically in painting, non-religious models of mourning also appeared in poetry from the 16th century onwards, whose actions were oriented towards the respective epoch-specific image of man (passion, ecstasy). The article analyses relevant poetic and musical works.