REFLECTION OF THE MULTICOMPONENT CULTURE OF THE KAZYM KHANTS IN FOLKLORE MATERIALS O GODDESS VUT IMI

Важнейшей составляющей традиционной культуры обских угров являются культы духов-покровителей — выдающихся богатырей-предков. В древности обожествляемая личность постепенно превращалась в средство существования общества, организации его жизни. Культ предка можно рассматривать как культурообразующий фактор и даже культурную модель традиционного общества, служившую целям выживания и приспособления людей к новым историческим условиям, выстраивания отношений с окружающим миром. В статье рассматривается образ одного из духов-покровителей хантыйского народа — Казымской богини-воительницы (известной в литературе также как Вут-ими или Касум-най), отраженный в фольклоре казымских и других групп хантов, сосьвинских манси и ненцев. «История» её жизни указывает на постоянные миграции и освоение новых территорий в древние времена, объясняет контакты предков казымских хантов с соседними этническими группами. Цель работы — раскрыть характер межэтнических и внутриэтнических связей казымских хантов на основе фольклорных текстов о Вут ими с опорой на культурно-исторический, описательный, функционально-семантический и типологический методы, с учётом уже имеющихся разработок по данной теме. В качестве историко-этнографического источника, содержащего информацию о межкультурных коммуникациях казымских хантов, автором рассмотрены как опубликованные ранее песни, сказания и предания о Вут-ими, включая сведения о её зооморфных образах, атрибутике, эпитетах, так и новый материал, записанный автором от информантов. Автором отмечается, что в образе главного духа-покровителя р. Казым просматриваются пермские черты. В языке, фольклоре, культурных традициях ярко выражены устойчивые контакты с мансийской территорией. Хантыйские предания указывают также на значительное влияние ненецкой культуры (прежде всего в сфере оленеводства). Мифология брачных отношений богини с хантыйскими богатырями отражает родство и характер внутриэтнических отношений хантов: казымской группы с другими локальными образованиями (иртышскими, пимскими и другими хантами). The most important component of the traditional culture of the Ob Ugrians are the cults of patron spirits-outstanding heroes-ancestors. In ancient times, the deified person gradually turned into a means of existence of society, the organization of its life. The cult of the ancestor can be considered as a cultural factor and even a cultural model of traditional society, which served the goals of survival and adaptation of people to new historical conditions, building relationships with the surrounding world. The article considers the image of one of the patron spirits of the Khanty people-the Kazim warrior goddess (also known in literature as Vut-imi or Kasum-nai, etc.), reflected in the folklore of the Kazim and other Khanty groups, Sosva Mansi and Nenets. The “history” of her life points to constant migrations and the development of new territories in ancient times, explains the contacts of the ancestors of the Kazim Khants with neighboring ethnic groups. The purpose of the work is to reveal the nature of interethnic and intraethnic relations of the Kazym Khants on the basis of folklore texts about the Vut by them, based on cultural-historical, descriptive, functional-semantic and typological methods, taking into account existing developments on this topic. As a historical and ethnographic source containing information about the intercultural communications of the Kazym Khants, the author considers both previously published songs, legends and legends about the Vut-im, including information about its zoomorphic images, attributes, epithets; as well as new material recorded by the author from informants. The author notes that the image of the main patron spirit of R. Kazym shows Permian features. Stable contacts with the Mansi territory are clearly expressed in the language, folklore, and cultural traditions. Khanty legends also indicate a significant influence of the Nenets culture (primarily in the field of reindeer husbandry). The mythology of the marriage relations of the goddess with the Khanty heroes reflects the kinship and nature of the intra-ethnic relations of the Khanty: the Kazim group with other local formations (Irtysh, Pim and other Khanty).

OROK OR ULTA: NOTES TO THE ETHNONYM AND ETHNOGENESIS

Ороки — жители Сахалина, говорящие на одном из тунгусо-маньчжурских языков (южная группа), близкого к ульчскому и нанайскому. Не позднее конца XVII века они заселили Сахалин, практикуя транспортное оленеводство, в сочетании с охотой, рыболовством и добычей морского зверя. Цель работы, — анализ некоторых фактов, оказавшихся вне поля зрения предшественников. Это особый счет возраста оленей, который сближает их с восточными эвенами, структура календаря, имеющая аналогии с календарями амурских эвенков (название января), и с календарями орочей, ульчей и негидальцев (названия летних месяцев). Мозаичность ороков (субэтносы), наряду с особенностями природных условий острова и длительной изоляцией, обеспечили своеобразие космогонических представлений, пантеона, базовых ритуалов (летний медвежий праздник и др.). Выявлено существование названия северного оленя, в форме (ы,у,и)л(в/б)(э/е)л у коряков, юкагиров, чукчей, алеутов, чуванцев, северных хантов, тундровых ненцев с неизвестной этимологией (кроме ненецкого тундрового илебць — средство к жизни). Орокское название дикого оленя сиро можно связать с подготовкой к гону (обдирка рогов сирки / ситчи) взрослых самцов дикого оленя. Название домашнего оленя (ула/я) у ороков, ранее возводимое к понятию река (ул / уил), близко к алеутскому улинах, северохантыйскому ули и иле в тундровом диалекте юкагирского, могло быть заимствовано пра — «ороками» напрямую, или через промежуточную контактную группу, на Саяно-Алтае, или в процессе миграции на восток. Данные популяционной генетики, роднят их с этносами Саяно-Алтая (тувинцы-тоджинцы, тофалары и др.) практикующих до сих пор охоту, собирательство и кочевое транспортное оленеводство. Примерно близкий (и невысокий 11,5–17,4 %), уровень частотности «тунгусской» гаплогруппы С, у ороков, ульчей, удэгейцев, негидальцев, указывает, по-видимому, на малое участие эвенкиек в формировании мтДНК ороков (женский генофонд). Oroks are residents of Sakhalin who speak one of the Tungus-Manchu languages (southern group), close to Ulchi and Nanai. Since the end of the 16th century, they have inhabited Sakhalin, practicing transport reindeer husbandry, combined with hunting, fishing and hunting of sea animals. The purpose of this work is to analyze some facts that were out of the field of view of their predecessors. This is a special account of the age of deer, which brings them closer to the Eastern evens, a calendar structure that has analogies with the calendars of the Amur Evenks (the name of January), and with the calendars of the Orochi, Ulchi and Negidals (the names of the summer months). Mosaic Oroks (subethnoses), along with the peculiarities of the island's natural conditions and long-term isolation, provided the uniqueness of cosmogonic representations, Pantheon, basic rituals (summer bear festival, etc.). The existence of the name of the reindeer, in the form *(I, u,e)l(v/b) (э/e)l in Koryaks, Yukagirы, Chukchis, Aleuts, Chuvans, Northern Khants, tundra Nenets with unknown etymology (except for the Nenets tundra ilebts — a means to life). The name of the wild deer siro can be associated with the preparation for the rut (stripping the horns of sirki / sitchе) of adult male wild deer. The name of the domestic deer (ula / ylja) among the Oroks, previously raised to the concept of river (ul / uil), close to the Aleutian ulinakh, North Khanty uli and Il in the tundra dialect of Yukagir, could be borrowed by the Oroks directly, or through an intermediate contact group. Data from population genetics make them related to the ethnic groups of the Sayano-Altai (tuvians-todzhins, tofalars, etc.) who still practice hunting, gathering, and nomadic transport reindeer husbandry. The approximately close (and low) frequency level of Tungusian haplogroup C in Oroks, Ulchi, Udege, and Negidals (frequency within 11.5–17.4%) seems to indicate a small participation of Evenki in the formation of mt DNA of Oroks (female gene pool).

Reindeer Pastoralism

The chapter focuses on intensive reindeer husbandry or reindeer pastoralism, which was a tenure system that emerged in the early modern period. Reindeer pastoralism and grazing are deeply interconnected and we therefore illuminate the ecological settings for reindeer grazing. A large part of the debate about governing common-pool resources has dealt with pastoralists and their grazing lands. Important features of reindeer pastoralism are described, including a discussion about how the number of tame reindeer developed in early modern era. The chapter ends with a portrayal of and a discussion about individual households’ rights to use certain areas for grazing, chiefly based on descriptions of contemporary court rulings from the local court in Jokkmokk. We show how a common-property regime evolved.

Wealth of nomads – an exploratory analysis of livestock inequality in the Saami reindeer husbandry

Social inequality is pervasive in contemporary human societies. Nevertheless, there is a view that livestock, as the primary source of wealth, limits the development of inequalities, making pastoralism unable to support complex or hierarchical organisations. Thus, complex nomadic pastoral organisation is predominantly caused by external factors, i.e., historically nomadic political organisation mirrored the neighbouring sedentary population's sophistication. Using governmental statistics on reindeer herding in Norway (2001 - 2018), this study demonstrates nothing apparent in the pastoral adaptation with livestock as the main base of wealth that level wealth inequalities and limits social differentiation. This study found that inequality was generally decreasing in terms of the Gini coefficient and cumulative wealth. For example, the proportion owned by the wealthy decreased from 2001 to 2018, while the proportion owned by the poor increased. Nevertheless, rank differences persist over time with minor changes. Especially, being poor is stable: around 50% of households ranked as poor in 2001 continued to be so in 2018. In sum, results from this study indicate that pastoral wealth inequality follows the same patterns as all forms of wealth. Wealth accumulates over time, and because the highest earners can save much of their income (i.e., newborn livestock), low earners cannot. High earners can thus accumulate more and more wealth over time, leading to considerable wealth inequalities.

Hunting by Early Modern Lule Sami Households

Hunting was one of three pillars, along with fishing and reindeer husbandry in the early modern Sami economy, and understanding of Sami hunting has increased during recent decades. However, most research has concentrated on time periods before AD 1600. After AD 1600 and the initial formation of modern Nordic countries, hunting ceased to be the backbone of the overall Sami economy but continued as an integral part of household economies. Our aim is to advance understanding of early modern hunting in northwestern interior Fennoscandia. Using source materials including court rulings and historical accounts, we set out from a self-governance perspective focusing on how actors solved resource distribution with regards to hunting. We show that ecological differences between mountains and forest impacted decisions about hunting. From the 1500s to the end of the 1700s, hunting led to the extinction of wild reindeer and depopulation of fur animals, while small-game hunting for subsistence continued to be important. In the forest region, strong property rights to game developed when skatteland (tax land) was established and hunting became a private enterprise. We suggest that the institution of skatteland was a response to changes in Sami economy, and the transition from collective to individual hunting was a contributing factor.

Plant Hunting: “Evenki Medicines” in Northern Baikal [Okhota za rasteniiami: “evenkiiskie lekarstva” na Severnom Baikale]

The article discusses the attitudes of the Northern Baikal Evenkis toward the flora, formed by the situation of relative autonomy. The focus is on plants that are used in medical practice and are in great demand. The article examines the knowledge of the Northern Baikal Evenkis about the healing properties of two plants that are considered universal medicines – Gentiana algida and Rhodiola rosea, sometimes called “Evenki medicines”. It considers human interactions with these medicinal plants in the context of mobility, as well as human, animal and landscape relations, and describes the practice of their gathering by hunters and reindeer herders. The Evenk hunting ethos and ideas about hunting luck are part of the system of relations between humans and the environment and manifest themselves in the practice of searching for and collecting medicinal plants. Local knowledge about their beneficial properties was formed under the influence of observations of animals’ behaviour. The strategies for the use of medical devices and the practice of prevention and treatment of diseases by the Evenki were formed under conditions of constant resource shortages. Reindeer husbandry and hunting demanded that people in constant motion improve the skills of maintaining relative autonomy, that is a certain type of attitude towards resources as well as medicines, based on minimizing their consumption. In such conditions, medicines with a wide spectrum of action turned out to be especially in demand.

Transformation of traditional reindeer herding technologies and pasturing practices 206on the Kola Peninsula in the 20th— early 21st century

The purpose of the article is to give an accent presentation of the transformation of technologies and tech-niques of reindeer grazing and value attitudes of the Kola reindeer herders in the 20th — early 21st century from an ethno-cultural perspective. The paper is based on the materials of the 2018 expedition to the Kola Peninsula. On the basis of using a system-analytical approach, the paper is structured as a narrative discourse, where the “floor” is given to the Kola reindeer herders themselves. As the studies show, the changes in the Kola reindeer husbandry brought about by the merger of the nomadic Samoyed-Izhem Culture, introduced to the Kola peninsula in the late 19th — early 20th century, with the semi-nomadic “cabin” Saami herding style, as well as by the Soviet period collective and state farm transformation of the traditional reindeer husbandry and the unfolding “snowmo-bile revolution” (the use of the reindeer sled has been reduced to one month in a year), have led not only to the loss of numerous traditional reindeer herding technologies, pasturing practices and herd control, but also to sig-nificant changes in the population composition, structure, and organization of the behavioral characteristics of the herds. Today, the Komi-Izhem reindeer husbandry is dominant in the Kola region. However, despite the major changes, the Kola herders are still quite flexible in using, depending on the circumstances, the advantages of both the Izhem and the Lapp reindeer husbandry systems. The return to the semi-free herds ranging practices and transition to rotational organization of reindeer herd tending in the post-Soviet period stimulated the economic revival of the herding industry and added more comfort to the reindeer herders' lifestyle, although the reindeer herding is not considered a prestigious occupation among young people. Rethinking the older generation's life experiences, together with the more critical perception of today's realities, is an indication of changes within the system of ethnic values, which formerly, in a sense, supported both the individual and collective identities of the Saami and Komi-Izhem ethnies. The transformation processes have had a particularly profound impact on the traditional Saami reindeer culture, almost destroying it, which causes painful memories and reactions of its last bearers. Displacement of the Lapp component is carried forward in the choice of preferred deer breeds and dis-appearance of the Saami language and Saami toponymy from the reindeer herding context.