Turning The Tables

This chapter outlines the different ways of combatting viruses. Smallpox was the most lethal of the recurrent childhood infections, and, until the late eighteenth century, had it all its own way. But in 1715, when smallpox virus infected Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, the fightback began. This turn of events gave Lady Mary a keen interest in smallpox that led, a few years later, to the first successful prevention of the disease in Europe. However, inoculation was obviously not entirely safe and was not universally accepted. Despite this, it continued to be popular until 1798, when Edward Jenner published the details of a safer alternative: vaccination. Following smallpox, rabies virus was the next to be prevented by a vaccine, this time produced by microbiologist Louis Pasteur working in Paris in the mid 1800s. From the mid 1950s onwards, a surge in production saw vaccines against common viruses like polio, measles, rubella, and mumps, as well as common bacterial infections like diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, being rolled out to all children in western countries. The chapter then looks at how these vaccines were prepared and the recent advances in vaccinology spurred on by the COVID-19 pandemic. It also considers flu vaccines, subunit vaccines, and microbial treatments.

Cases of Orthopoxviral Infections around the World over a Period of 2008–2018

The eradication of smallpox has become one of the greatest successes of modern health science. This great achievement was made possible thanks to the widespread vaccination of the population. The last case of human infection with smallpox virus occurred in 1977. In 1980, at the 33rd session of the World Health Assembly, routine vaccination against that infection was recommended to be discontinued due to severe post-vaccination complications. However, humanity remains vulnerable to other orthopoxvirus infections closely related to smallpox virus. Recently, the cases of human infection with ortopoxviruses such as monkeypox virus, cowpox virus, vaccinia virus have become more frequent. Also, cases of infection of people with previously unknown orthopoxvirus species are recorded. Zoonotic orthopoxviruses pathogenic for humans, circulating in nature, require a detailed study and monitoring of the emergence of new strains. Their occurrence against the background of the cessation of planned vaccination of the population against smallpox virus can lead to the emergence of new highly pathogenic viruses. This review contains information on cases of human infection with orthopoxviruses around the world for the period 2008–2018. It also describes epidemiological anamnesis and the relations between cases of human infection in different countries due to the spread of viruses over a wide area, the movement of people between countries, population contacts with domestic and wild animals. Also, this paper provides information on the infection of people with previously unknown strains of orthopoxviruses.

SARS-CoV-2 mutations among minks show reduced lethality and infectivity to humans

SARS-CoV-2 infection in minks has become a serious problem, as the virus may mutate and reinfect humans; some countries have decided to cull minks. Here, the virus sequencing data in minks were analysed and compared to those of human-virus. Although the mink-virus maintained the characteristics of human-virus, some variants rapidly mutated, adapting to minks. Some mink-derived variants infected humans, which accounted for 40% of the total SARS-CoV-2 cases in the Netherlands. These variants appear to be less lethal and infective compared to those in humans. Variants that have mutated further among minks were not found in humans. Such mink-viruses might be suitable for vaccination for humans, such as in the case of the smallpox virus, which is less infective and toxic to humans.

A novel and sensitive real-time PCR system for universal detection of poxviruses

Success in smallpox eradication was enabled by the absence of non-human reservoir for smallpox virus. However, other poxviruses with a wider host spectrum can infect humans and represent a potential health threat to humans, highlighted by a progressively increasing number of infections by (re)emerging poxviruses, requiring new improved diagnostic and epidemiological tools. We describe here a real-time PCR assay targeting a highly conserved region of the poxvirus genome, thus allowing a pan-Poxvirus detection (Chordopoxvirinae and Entomopoxvirinae). This system is specific (99.8% for vertebrate samples and 99.7% for arthropods samples), sensitive (100% for vertebrate samples and 86.3% for arthropods samples) and presents low limit of detection (< 1000 DNA copies/reaction). In addition, this system could be also valuable for virus discovery and epidemiological projects.

SARS-CoV-2 mutations among minks show reduced lethality and infectivity to humans

SARS-CoV-2 infection in minks has become a serious problem, as the virus may mutate and reinfect humans; some countries have decided to cull minks. Here, the virus sequencing data in minks were analysed and compared to those of human-virus. Although the mink-virus maintained the characteristics of human-virus, some variants rapidly mutated, adapting to minks. Some mink-derived variants infected humans, which accounted for 40% of the total SARS-CoV-2 cases in the Netherlands. These variants appear to be less lethal and infective compared to those in humans. Variants that have mutated further among minks were not found in humans. Such mink-virus might be suitable for vaccination for humans, such as in the case of the smallpox virus, which is less infective and toxic to humans.

ORTOPOXVIRUSES: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

The analysis of scientific publication, dedicated to human pathogenic orthopoxviruses over the past 40 years is generalizated. The essential activation of focies of monkeypox in Central Africa, cowpox in Europe, buffalopox in South-East Asia, camelpox in South-West and Central Asia and vaccinia-like viruses in Southern America is marked on the background of the apperance of three novel representatives of orthopoxviruses in North America (agents of volepox, raccoonpox and skunpox) and two representatives of African orthopoxviruses (agents of Uasingishu, named self-titled province of Kenya and taterpox). It is concluded, that this is facilitated by almost complete absence of anti-smallpox immunity after the elimination of smallpox and stopping immunization in the world on the background of active human intervention in the nature. Expert do not exclude, that as a result of a mutation of one of orthopoxviruses of animal, similar to smallpox virus agent will exist. Whereat the world will face a threat, much more serious that swine flu or avian flu. It is concluded that modern scientific and methodological approachesto study of orthopoxvirus infections evolution allow to predict threats, related on biological safety of Russian Federation.

Measles Virus

This chapter explores the origin and infectivity of the measles virus in the course of human history. How measles first came to infect humans is not clear. Definitive proof is hard to come by since measles virus infection was once nearly impossible to distinguish from smallpox virus infection. Consequently, both had been lumped together as a single entity. As early as the tenth century, the Arab physician Abu Becr first attempted to distinguish between the two. However, it was not until the seventeenth century that English physician Thomas Sydenham actually documented the clinical entity of measles infection. Once it was understood that infection with measles virus confers lifelong protection from the disease and that humans are the natural host, interest turned toward developing a preventive vaccine. The chapter then considers the purported evidence that measles virus vaccines may be harmful. Such misinformation is often propagated for personal reasons yet greatly affects public health and individual lives.

Different Dermoscopic Aspects of Molluscum Contagiosum in the Same Patient: Case Report

Molluscum contagiosum (MC) presents by skin lesions secondary to a viral skin infection at the expense of epidermal keratinocytes having appearances with specific intracytoplasmic inclusions caused by the smallpox virus. It is a frequent pathology that affects the skin and mucous membranes. The diagnosis of CD is easy, but when clinical features lack atypical lesions, it can hinder the diagnosis of CD. It is then that there is a need for early and easy diagnosis of CD by the ticket of the dermoscopy which is a non-invasive diagnostic tool that allows visualizing the different dermoscopic aspects that we describe through the same observation.

Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)/SARS-CoV-2: Hopefully, the Human-Virus Battle Ends Soon on a Positive Note

The emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases are not uncommon to humans. We have been seeing this, repeated many a time in the past, that the new/novel microbial species emerge and pose a potential threat to the whole of mankind. Among those infectious diseases which threatened mankind, the Smallpox virus appears to have had the greatest impact. Smallpox virus was suspected to be present on the earth since 10,000 B.C., but its presence and the effect on humans was established only in the late 18th century to the early 20th century when people suffered from its consequences. Most people (>75%) infected with smallpox died, leaving a sense of doom among humans. Later, or probably during the same time, there was the emergence of an infectious disease called “plague”, which swept across many countries and caused a lot of mortality. This disease was also called the black death, due to the nature of lesions caused and the thousands of people who were dying in very less time. We have also seen the emergence of a novel influenza virus, the Spanish flu (1918) which caused a severe pandemic. Interestingly, all these infectious diseases caused pandemics involving several countries, and causing increased mortality, especially in the European continent. In this editorial I discuss the significance of the most recent pandemic caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV2), also called Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19).