Epidemiology of West Nile virus in Africa: An underestimated threat

Background West Nile virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus which has been posing continuous challenges to public health worldwide due to the identification of new lineages and clades and its ability to invade and establish in an increasing number of countries. Its current distribution, genetic variability, ecology, and epidemiological pattern in the African continent are only partially known despite the general consensus on the urgency to obtain such information for quantifying the actual disease burden in Africa other than to predict future threats at global scale. Methodology and principal findings References were searched in PubMed and Google Scholar electronic databases on January 21, 2020, using selected keywords, without language and date restriction. Additional manual searches of reference list were carried out. Further references have been later added accordingly to experts’ opinion. We included 153 scientific papers published between 1940 and 2021. This review highlights: (i) the co-circulation of WNV-lineages 1, 2, and 8 in the African continent; (ii) the presence of diverse WNV competent vectors in Africa, mainly belonging to the Culex genus; (iii) the lack of vector competence studies for several other mosquito species found naturally infected with WNV in Africa; (iv) the need of more competence studies to be addressed on ticks; (iv) evidence of circulation of WNV among humans, animals and vectors in at least 28 Countries; (v) the lack of knowledge on the epidemiological situation of WNV for 19 Countries and (vii) the importance of carrying out specific serological surveys in order to avoid possible bias on WNV circulation in Africa. Conclusions This study provides the state of art on WNV investigation carried out in Africa, highlighting several knowledge gaps regarding i) the current WNV distribution and genetic diversity, ii) its ecology and transmission chains including the role of different arthropods and vertebrate species as competent reservoirs, and iii) the real disease burden for humans and animals. This review highlights the needs for further research and coordinated surveillance efforts on WNV in Africa.

Seasonal Dynamics of Mosquito-Borne Viruses in the Southwestern Florida Everglades, 2016, 2017

Mosquitoes were collected for 12 consecutive months beginning June 2016, from 11 locations in the Florida Everglades, Collier County, and tested for viruses by isolation in Vero cells and subsequent identification. One species complex and 31 species of mosquitoes were identified from 668,809 specimens. Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus comprised 72.2% of the collection. Other notable species were Anopheles crucians complex, Culex nigripalpus, Cx. erraticus, and Cx. cedecei. Seven species of virus were identified from 110 isolations: Everglades, Gumbo Limbo, Mahogany Hammock, Pahayokee, Shark River, Tensaw, and West Nile viruses. Everglades, West Nile, Tensaw, and Mahogany Hammock viruses were most frequently isolated. Largest numbers of viruses were identified from Cx. cedecei, Cx. nigripalpus, and An. crucians complex. Five species of virus were isolated from Cx. cedecei. Viruses were isolated from mangrove, cypress swamp, hardwood hammock, and sawgrass habitats. West Nile virus was isolated August through October when Cx. nigripalpus was most abundant. Everglades virus was the most frequently isolated virus from nine species of mosquitoes collected from June through August. Tensaw virus was isolated primarily from Anopheles species. Isolations were made in July, August, January, February, and April, suggesting that this virus may be present in host-seeking mosquitoes throughout the year. Mahogany Hammock, Shark River, Gumbo Limbo, and Pahayokee viruses were isolated primarily from Cx. cedecei from June through December. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing was used to document that seven pools of Cx. cedecei were infected with two arboviruses. As communities expand into the Everglades, more humans will become exposed to arboviruses.

West Nile virus transmission potential in Portugal

It is unclear whether West Nile virus (WNV) circulates endemically in Portugal. Despite the country’s adequate climate for transmission, Portugal has only reported four human WNV infections so far. We performed a review of WNV-related data (1966–2020), explored mosquito (2016–2019) and land type distributions (1992–2019), and used climate data (1981–2019) to estimate WNV transmission suitability in Portugal. Serological and molecular evidence of WNV circulation from animals and vectors was largely restricted to the south. Land type and climate-driven transmission suitability distributions, but not the distribution of WNV-capable vectors, were compatible with the North-South divide present in serological and molecular evidence of WNV circulation. Our study offers a comprehensive, data-informed perspective and review on the past epidemiology, surveillance and climate-driven transmission suitability of WNV in Portugal, highlighting the south as a subregion of importance. Given the recent WNV outbreaks across Europe, our results support a timely change towards local, active surveillance.

Bagaza virus and Plasmodium spp. coinfection in red-legged partridges ( Alectoris rufa ), in southern Spain 2019

Flaviviruses West Nile (WNV), Usutu (USUV) and Bagaza (BAGV) virus and avian malaria parasites are vector borne pathogens that circulate naturally between avian and mosquito hosts. WNV and USUV and potentially also BAGV constitute zoonoses. Temporal and spatial co-circulation and co-infection with Plasmodium spp., and West Nile virus has been documented in birds and mosquito vectors, and fatally USUV infected passerines coinfected with Plasmodium spp. had more severe lesions. Also, WNV, USUV and BAGV have been found to co-circulate. Yet little is known about the interaction of BAGV and malaria parasites during consecutive or co-infections of avian hosts. Here we report mortality of free-living red-legged partridges in a hunting estate in Southern Spain due to coinfection with BAGV and Plasmodium spp. The outbreak occurred in the area where BAGV first emerged in Europe in 2010 and where co-circulation of BAGV, USUV and WNV was confirmed in 2011 and 2013. Partridges were found dead in early October 2019. Birds had mottled locally pale pectoral muscles, enlarged, congestive greenish-black tinged livers and enlarged kidneys. Microscopically congestion and predominantly mononuclear inflammatory infiltrates were evident and Plasmodium phanerozoites were present in the liver, spleen, kidneys, muscle and skin. Molecular testing and sequencing detected Plasmodium spp. and BAGV in different tissues of the partridges, and immunohistochemistry confirmed the presence and co-localization of both pathogens in the liver and spleen. Although Plasmodium spp. are known to be highly prevalent in red-legged partridges, this is the first account of mortality caused by co-infection with BAGV and Plasmodium sp. Due to the importance of the red-legged partridge in the ecosystem of the Iberian Peninsula and as driver of regional economy such mortalities are of concern. Also, they may reflect climate change related changes in host, vector and pathogen ecology and interactions that could emerge similarly in other pathogens.

Selection of Monitoring points for the Number and Infectivity of the Main Vectors of West Nile Virus in the Volgograd Region

Relevance. Since 1999, the incidence of West Nile fever has been recorded in the Volgograd region. The main vectors of West Nile virus in Russia are Cx mosquitoes. pipiens L. and Cx. modestus Fic. An objective assessment of the entomological situation and infection rate of these species within the framework of epidemiological surveillance of West Nile fever is possible only in biotopes with sufficiently high numbers of mosquitoes; therefore, the choice of sampling points is an urgent task. Purpose of the study. Analysis of the West Nile virus main vectors - mosquitoes Cx. pipiens L. and Cx. modestus Fic. average number, occurrence and infection rate at the various open biotopes of the Volgograd region to justify the choice of optimal points for entomological monitoring. Materials and methods. The catching and accounting of the mosquitoes’ number was carried out in 2015–2019 from May to August in the third decade of each month in a floodplain forest, at a personal plot, a summer cottage and on bank of water body. To catch mosquitoes, automatic traps Mosquito Magnet Executive and LovKom-1 were used. The accounting unit was the number of mosquitoes collected in both traps per trap-night. The average number, the index of occurrence and infection rate were determined by generally accepted methods. Detection of West Nile virus RNA in samples of mosquito pool suspensions was performed by RT-PCR using the AmpliSense WNV-FL reagent kit. The results were statistically processed using Microsoft Excel 2016 (Microsoft Corporation, USA). Results. In the 2015-2019 period, 17468 mosquitoes of the genus Culex: 8258 species – Cx. pipiens L., 9210 species – Cx. modestus Fic. were collected in over than 80 trap nights at the selected stationary points of the Volgograd region. Average number of Cx. pipiens L. was: in the floodplain forest – 4.6 individuals per 1 trap-night; at the personal plot – 183.9; at the summer cottage – 30.2; on the bank of water body – 194.3. Average number of Cx. modestus Fic. was: in the floodplain forest – 5.2 individuals per 1 trapnight; at the personal plot – 8.3; at the summer cottage – 2.5;on the bank of water body – 444.6. Occurrence index Cx. pipiens L. was highon the bank of water body and at the personal plot (47.1% and 44.5%, respectively), much lower – at the summer cottage (7.3%) and in the floodplain forest (1.1%). Level of WNV infection among Cx. pipiens L.on a personal plot was 5.4%, on a summer cottage – 3.6%,on the bank of water body – 2.2%. No infected samples were found among Cx. pipiens L. collected from the floodplain forest. WNV RNA in samples from mosquitoes Cx. modestus Fic. found only in individuals caughton the bank of water body. Their infection rate was 1.2%. Discussion. Ecological plasticity of Cx. pipiens L. mosquitoes allows them to live in settlements and near water bodies. Mosquitoes of the species Cx. modestus Fic. do not fly away from ponds, breeding places. Conclusion. High numbers and occurrence of the Cx. pipiens L. mosquitoes were observed at a personal plot within the city andon the bank of water body, Cx. modestus Fic. –on the bank of water body. WNV RNA positive samples were detected from mosquitoes collected at the personal plot, the summer cottage andon the bank of water body. To monitor the number and infection rate among Cx. pipiens L., points of registration and sampling should be placed in open stationson personal plots in settlements, banks of water bodies and summer cottages. We recommend to carry entomological monitoring for Cx. modestus Fic. out onlyon the banks of water bodies along the water's edge in reed thickets. The placement of the main WNV vectors number and infection rate monitoring points in the floodplain forest is not advisable.