Multidrug resistance, biofilm formation, and virulence genes of Escherichia coli from backyard poultry farms

Background and Aim: Backyard chicken flocks have traditionally been regarded as an essential food source in developed countries; however, they may act as reservoirs and spread various zoonotic bacterial pathogens. This study was designed to investigate the prevalence, phenotypic resistance, biofilm formation (BF), and pathotypes of Escherichia coli isolates from backyard poultry farms. Materials and Methods: Cloacal swabs (n=150) and internal organs (n=150) were collected from 30 backyard chicken flocks; 20 of them were experiencing systemic infection, and the other ten were apparently healthy. Samples were bacteriologically examined for E. coli isolation. Isolates were identified biochemically by the VITEK® 2 COMPACT system (BioMérieux, France). For molecular identification, 16S rRNA was amplified and sequenced. Ten antimicrobials were selected for E. coli antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The minimum inhibitory concentration for each antimicrobial was determined. The extended-spectrum β-lactamase activity in isolates was investigated using cephalosporin/clavulanate combination disks. The ability of isolates for BF was determined by the microtiter plate method. Thirteen virulence genes linked to different E. coli pathotypes and two serotype-related genes were investigated by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Results: Eighty-six E. coli strains were isolated from 30 backyard chicken flocks. The isolates were biochemically identified to the species level. Genetically, sequences of the 16S rRNA gene showed >98% identity with E. coli in the National Center for Biological Information database. The frequency of isolation from diseased flocks was significantly higher (p<0.05) than apparently healthy flocks; 63.9% of the isolates were recovered from cloacal swabs and 36.04% were recovered from internal organs. E. coli isolates showed high resistance to ampicillin (AMP; 75.6%), gentamicin (39.5%), and tetracycline (29.1%). However, none of the isolates were resistant to imipenem. A variable drug resistance profile for E. coli isolates was reported. Twenty-one (24.4%) isolates were sensitive to all ten antimicrobials. Seven (8.1%) isolates were resistant only to AMP, and 28 (32.6%) were resistant to two antimicrobials, whereas the remaining 30 (34.9%) isolates showed multidrug resistance (MDR). Of the 86 isolates, 8 (9.3%) were confirmed as extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing E. coli by the combination disk diffusion method. All ESBL isolates were MDR with an MDR index of 0.5-0.6. Fifty-seven (66.3%) isolates were capable of forming biofilms; 22 (25.6%) of them were strong biofilm producers, 24 (27.9%) moderate producers, and 11 (12.8%) weak producers. A statistically significant pairwise correlation was obtained for MDR versus BF (r=0.512) and MDR index versus BF (r=0.556). Based on virulence gene profiles, five pathotypes were identified, including enteropathogenic E. coli (39.5%), avian pathogenic E. coli (32.53%), enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC; 9.3%), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC; 5.8%), and enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC; 1.2%). The lower frequency of EAEC and ETEC was statistically significant than other pathotypes. Three isolates were identified as O157 based on the detection of the rbfO157 gene. Conclusion: This study reported a high prevalence of MDR, suggesting the misuse of antimicrobials in backyard chicken farms. The emergence of ESBL and EHEC isolates in backyard chickens is a public health concern. Furthermore, the backyard flocks environment may harbor different pathogenic bacteria that may enhance the persistence of infection and the transmission to in-contact humans. Regular monitoring for the occurrence of MDR and the zoonotic pathotypes among E. coli in backyard chicken flocks is recommended, as these bacteria can transmit to humans through food products or contaminated environments.

Outbreak of avian botulism in a backyard poultry farming / Surto de botulismo aviário em criação de aves domésticas

The purpose of this study is to report an outbreak of avian botulism in backyard poultry farming. In 2019, a botulism outbreak in a flock of laying hens was investigated in Brazil. In the flock of 30 hens, clinical signs of botulism occurred after they ate decaying vegetables. A type C botulism outbreak was confirmed using the mouse lethality assay for detection of botulinum toxin in serum and ELISA test to detect Clostridium botulinum in intestinal contents and serum. Botulism in laying hens has rarely been reported. The chickens developed cyanotic comb and wattle, dyspnea, different degrees of flaccid paralysis in the neck, and detachment of feathers. No macroscopic lesions were observed, as were microscopic findings. The chicken's serum was neutralized by C antitoxin, confirming the botulism diagnosis, and also toxin was detected in intestinal contents.

Occurrence of poultry coccidiosis in different management systems in Thrissur, Kerala

Coccidiosis is one of the most prevalent and economically important parasitic diseases caused by the infection with Eimeria species contributing to major economic losses of poultry industry worldwide. In this study, occurrence of Eimeria spp. in chicken reared under different management systems was studied. A total of 300 faecal samples from chicken were collected from six organised poultry farms and six backyard poultry units in and around Thrissur, Kerala. Out of this, 167 faecal samples were from organised farms and 133 from backyard poultry units. All the samples were artificially sporulated and examined for studying the oocysts morphology and morphometry. Out of 167 samples from organised farms 52 were found to be positive for Eimeria spp. while 61 out of 133 samples from backyard poultry were positive. The overall occurrence of Eimeria spp. in chicken from 12 different areas in and around Thrissur was 37.66 per cent (113/300). The species of Eimeria identified on morphological examination were E. tenella, E. necatrix and E. maxima. The occurrence rate of E. tenella was found to be significantly higher (46.01 %) compared to E. necatrix (39.82 %) and E. maxima (14.15 %). The rate of occurrence of Eimeria spp. infection was significantly higher in backyard poultry (45.86 %) compared to that in organised farms (31.13 %).

Secondary Agriculture towards Increasing Production and Sustainability

There is a pressing need for global agriculture to shift its focus to secondary agriculture in order to produce jobs as the world's population increases. The method of generating agricultural produce is biological in nature, making it a primary agriculture operation; but, when the raw produce is refined, it receives additional benefit, making it a secondary agriculture activity. Any farm related activity that uses the land or labor beyond the Kharif and Rabi seasons would qualify for a ‘Secondary Agriculture’ activity. India's scope for diversified agriculture is vast because of extensive arable land, multiple agro-climatic zones and a rich cafeteria of soils. However, India's reputation as a global agricultural powerhouse is ironically at odds with its farmers' low average wages. The road to higher agricultural Gross Value Added and farmers' income rests in efficient management of the post-production segment, comprising agri-logistics, processing and marketing. Agriculture generates raw materials that meet basic human requirements, and is considered as a primary economic activity. Of course, there are certain alternative agriculture activities like beekeeping, mushroom cultivation, backyard poultry, etc., which fall under the ambit of secondary agriculture. Secondary agriculture helps in using all parts of an agricultural produce, processing to enhance shelf-life, increasing total factor productivity, and generating additional jobs and income for farmers. It, thus, encompasses both food and non-food processing, and represents agro-processing. Income generation activities such as paddy straw fodder blocks, duck farming, honeybee keeping, mushroom cultivation, backyard poultry, among others, that do not compete with the time that is required for various inter-cultivation activities of primary agriculture production, qualify to be defined as a secondary agriculture. These Small-scale activities utilizes rural manpower, skills and locally available inputs efficiently. These enterprises can interact in space and/or time to achieve benefits through a synergistic resource transfer among enterprises, working closely such that waste from one part becomes a supply for another component of the system known as Integrated Farming System (IFS). Not only this but waste management is also one the important issue tackled with the help of secondary agriculture like leftover cane can be processed to produce by products of sugarcane. Thus, secondary agriculture realizes better productivity, profitability and sustainable production systems that would help to solve the fuel, feed and energy crisis, create more employment avenues, ensure regular income and encourage agriculture-oriented industry.