A Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Sufism in the Sokoto Caliphate

This article presents an annotated translation of The Exposition of Devotions, a short text by Shaykh ʿAbd al-Qādir ibn Muṣtafā (1218–1280/1804–1864) about his spiritual master and maternal uncle, Muḥammad Sambo (1195–1242/1782–1826). Muḥammad Sambo was the son of ʿUthmān ibn Fūdī (also known as Usman dan Fodio), the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate, one of the largest pre-colonial polities on the African continent. While modern scholarship has tended to focus on the political, legal, social, and economic dimensions of the jihad movement that created the Sokoto Caliphate, this text provides a brief, but detailed account of the spiritual practices and discussions amongst Usman dan Fodio’s clan (the Fodiawa), demonstrating the centrality of the Akbarī tradition in technical discussions, as well as the unique developments of this tradition in thirteenth/nineteenth century West Africa. The work begins with an account of a dream of the then-deceased Muḥammad Sambo that occasioned its composition, and after a brief discussion of the status of dreams and their importance, gives an account of Sambo’s spiritual method and practices. The short treatise concludes with the author’s summary of Sambo’s responses to several technical and highly esoteric questions posed to him by the author, illustrating the profound mastery and unique perspectives developed on these topics by the Fodiawa. Combining oneirology, hagiography, practical and theoretical Sufism, this short treatise is an illuminating window into the spiritual and intellectual traditions of the founders of the Sokoto Caliphate.

An assessment of selected traditional leaders from the Sarkin Musulmi Abubakar Atiku family and their domains in Africa

This paper briefly discussed some of the Atikawa who had been on their rightful thrones and their domains. This was achieved via literature review and interviews with key informants. This paper explained that Caliph Abubakar Atiku had contributed immensely to the development and progress of the Sokoto Caliphate during the jihad of Shehu Usman Danfodiyo. It was found that Caliph Abdurrahman Atiku reigned 1891-1902, the last direct grandchild of Shehu to be on the throne. Attahuiru (the son of Ahmad) reigned in 1902-1903 and was the one who fought the final battle with the British. His descendants are presently holding a Sultanate throne in Maiyurno, Sudan. Some of his disciples spread to Makkah, Mali, and many other parts of the world. His time allowed the Shehu's jihad to reach international space. Maiturare (son of Amadu) became sultan in 1915-1924 and was the most successful after the invasion of the Sokoto Caliphate by the British. He was preceded by his son, Muhammadu Tambari, who left the throne in 1931. Apart from Sultanate, the descendants of Atiku had built many towns and villages and managed them to greatness.

Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Sokoto Caliphate

Established using a conventional Islamic model of government, the new Muslim state in Sokoto, known as the Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903), possessed eventually very large numbers of men, women, and children, taken captive (usually when children) in jihad from mainly non-Muslim communities, to serve as slaves. These slaves worked on farms or within households, they might be concubines and bear children for their owners; or they might be sold as children for export to North Africa in payment for the luxury imports the new elite wanted. Slaves were, under Islamic law, deemed “minors” or “half-persons,” and so had rights that differed from those of the free Muslim. By the end of the 19th century there were more slaves on the local markets than could be sold; exports of captives to North Africa had already dropped. For some captives enslaved as children, however, the career as a slave led eventually to high political positions, even to owning many slaves of their own. But slaves’ property, even their children, ultimately belonged to the slave’s owner. Revolts by male slaves were very rare, but escape was commonplace. Concubines, if they ever became pregnant by their owner, could not be sold again. The abolition of slavery c.1903 was slow to become a reality for many individual slaves, whether men or women.

The Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto Caliphate, prior to 1964 generally referred to in print as the Fulani Empire, was Africa’s largest pre-colonial state and lasted for a century, coming into being in 1808 through a four-year jihad and finally in 1903 being conquered by Britain. As an Islamic state, it was run as a decentralized confederation of emirates under the supervision of the caliph and his bureaucracy in Sokoto. Though almost all the emirs initially were scholars chosen for their piety, they could be identified ethnically as Fulani/Fulbe (hence the “Fulani Empire”) whereas the majority of the population were Hausa-speakers. There was a very large number of slaves (at times over 50 percent), serving the elite or working as labor on farms, which supplied food to large households and markets in the cities. There was no standing army, but borders were closed by strategically sited ribats or strongholds. Conflicts were resolved by local administrators, with the courts using Shari‘a law; servants of local officials acted as police. The chapter’s argument is that the Sokoto Caliphate is more accurately categorized not as an “imperial” polity but as an Islamic state modeled as a confederation on Abbasid practice.

Revisionism and the Historical Interpretation of the Sokoto Caliphate: The Writings of Murray Last

The Sokoto Caliphate which was founded as a result of the 1804 Jihad spear-headed by Sheikh Uthman bin Fudi has attracted the attention of so many writers most of whom were Europeans. To properly legalise colonialism, most colonial writers view the Caliphate as an attempt made by the Fulbe to establish their hegemony over Hausa-land, while to others, it was no more than a Fulbe onslaught on the inferior ethnic groups of the then Central Sudan. In the post-colonial period, Murray Last came up with a more balanced argument on the history of the Caliphate and after him, came other researchers among which are Europeans and Africans. However, in this twenty first century, writers like Last took a revisionist stand towards the history of Sokoto Caliphate. Therefore, this paper though centres heavily on written sources, looks into the major reasons aiding his abrupt revisionist interpretation of the history of the Sokoto Caliphate by juxtaposing his earlier works with the present ones. The paper equally finds out that this recent revisionist interpretation of the history of the Sokoto Caliphate is projected mainly to create confusion by negating the established historical facts imbued in the realm of the Caliphate’s history especially for socio-political reasons.

Free Choice Theory and the Justification of Enslavement in the Early Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto Caliphate, which was based on Islamic law, depended considerably on widespread systematic slavery in political, economic, and social spheres. According to Islamic law, it is only permitted, in principle, to enslave non-Muslims or unbelievers, and ʿUthmān b. Fūdī, the founder of the Caliphate, labeled his principal enemies (i.e. the rulers of the Hausa states and Bornu and their followers) as apostate unbelievers. However, Muslim jurists historically presented conflicting views regarding the permissibility of enslaving apostates. Faced with this legal disagreement, ʿUthmān, referring to numerous preceding scholars, argued that it was permissible to choose any one of several juristic views regarding a legal issue on which scholars disagreed. By the employment of this “free choice theory”, he justified the enslavement of those whom he labeled as apostates and consequently authorized the enslavement of all kinds of people whom he had categorized as unbelievers living in and around Hausaland.