The Technology Transfer from Europe to China in the 17th–18th Centuries: Non-Invasive On-Site XRF and Raman Analyses of Chinese Qing Dynasty Enameled Masterpieces Made Using European Ingredients/Recipes

Two masterpieces of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 CE), one in gilded brass (incense burner) decorated with cloisonné enamels stylistically attributed to the end of the Kangxi Emperor’s reign, the other in gold (ewer offered by Napoleon III to the Empress as a birthday present), decorated with both cloisonné and painted enamels bearing the mark of the Qianlong Emperor, were non-invasively studied by optical microscopy, Raman microspectroscopy and X-ray microfluorescence spectroscopy (point measurements and mapping) implemented on-site with mobile instruments. The elemental compositions of the metal substrates and enamels are compared. XRF point measurements and mappings support the identification of the coloring phases and elements obtained by Raman microspectroscopy. Attention was paid to the white (opacifier), blue, yellow, green, and red areas. The demonstration of arsenic-based phases (e.g., lead arsenate apatite) in the blue areas of the ewer, free of manganese, proves the use of cobalt imported from Europe. The high level of potassium confirms the use of smalt as the cobalt source. On the other hand, the significant manganese level indicates the use of Asian cobalt ores for the enamels of the incense burner. The very limited use of the lead pyrochlore pigment (European Naples yellow recipes) in the yellow and soft green cloisonné enamels of the Kangxi incense burner, as well as the use of traditional Chinese recipes for other colors (white, turquoise, dark green, red), reinforces the pioneering character of this object in technical terms at the 17th–18th century turn. The low level of lead in the cloisonné enamels of the incense burner may also be related to the use of European recipes. On the contrary, the Qianlong ewer displays all the enameling techniques imported from Europe to obtain a painted decoration of exceptional quality with the use of complex lead pyrochlore pigments, with or without addition of zinc, as well as cassiterite opacifier.

The cataract surgery of Empress Eugenie of France a century ago by the eminent Spanish ophthalmologist Ignacio Barraquer

Topic: Empress Eugénie (1826–1920), the widow of Emperor Napoléon III of France, developed mature cataracts late in life. In 1920, at age 94, she underwent surgery to one eye by Ignacio Barraquer (1884–1965), a member of the famous dynasty of ophthalmologists originally from Barcelona, Spain. Clinical relevance: Barraquer used his new instrument which employed a vacuum cup to hold the lens for intracapsular extraction. Methods: Research of historical documents. Results: The surgery was a success; the Empress was pleased that she could read again although she did not have long to live. She was his first famous cataract patient and his fame spread internationally. Barraquer spoke at the International Congress of Ophthalmology held in Washington, DC, in 1922 and demonstrated his technique on patients in Washington, DC, New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Richmond, VA. Conclusion: Barraquer's surgery on Éugenie, who was the most powerful woman in Europe during her husband's reign, influenced the course of development of cataract surgical technique.

Texas, Mobile, and Wilson’s Raid

Civil wars in both the United States and Mexico during the 1850s–1860s fostered the most serious challenge to the Monroe Doctrine in American history. Taking advantage of Mexico’s internal troubles, Emperor Napoleon III of France installed a Hapsburg prince as the new emperor of Mexico. Although invited to intervene by Mexican conservatives, no one liked the prince who remained on the throne only at the point of thirty thousand French Army bayonets. The U.S. government tried to intimidate Napoleon to withdraw his troops by placing a small force in the lower Rio Grande Valley, but it failed to have an effect. Two campaigns closed the war in the West by capturing Mobile, Alabama, and destroying Confederate war industries in Alabama and Georgia before the Federals could shift large numbers of troops to Texas and finally bring an end to the French intervention in Mexico.

The Ghost of the Nephew: Napoleon iii in “The Demons” by F. M. Dostoevsky

The article contains an analysis of one of the references to Emperor Napoleon iii in the preparatory materials of F. M. Dostoevsky for The Demons. In addition, the hypothesis of Louis Bonaparte as one of the prototypes of Peter Verkhovensky is considered. This assumption is based on the material of Dostoevsky’s notebooks and has already been expressed by V. A. Tunimanov and A. Pekurovskaya, although it has not yet received complete development. The article shows what are the details of Napoleon iii’s biography, what are the elements of his political tactics and individual myth that could be known to Dostoevsky and used by him in creating such a character as younger Verkhovensky. In line with the “black legend” about Louis Bonaparte, Verkhovensky relies on people who are deprived of a stable social position. He goes for a hoax willingly and hopes that demoralization and panic in society will allow him to come to power. Just as Napoleon iii stands hostage for the myth of his great uncle, Verkhovensky is slavishly dependent on his “idol,” his “Ivan Tsarevitch”—Stavrogin. Both pairs can be considered from the point of view of the phenomenon of mimetic desire as it was described by R. Girard. The article also shows how historical and literary prototypes of the same character interact with each other, revealing certain functional features of the new hero. In this case, the relationship between the figures of Napoleon iii and Gogol’s Khlestakov in the general design of the image of Verkhovensky is briefly addressed.

Harnessing Religion to the Imperial Cause

Religion plays a central role in any monarchical system, for it is God Himself who is considered the fount of monarchical power. Imperial regimes, like monarchical ones, used religion to legitimate as well as to project their power. This chapter discusses Franz Joseph of Austria’s Catholic piety and how Napoleon I instrumentalized religion and clashed with the pope. It analyses the Feast of the Saint-Napoleon, which Napoleon III used to project his power, and the Hohenzollerns’ presentation of themselves as the defenders of Protestantism. The renovation of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, a huge programme of church building in the Prussian lands, and Wilhelm II’s three most prestigious church projects are discussed in detail.

Showcasing the Empire

The second half of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth were remarkable for large-scale international exhibitions of agricultural products, manufactured goods, technological inventions, and artworks that were staged in major cities in purpose-built buildings and visited by very large numbers of people. These events were demonstrations of national pride, functioned as engines of modernity, and promoted the global exchange of knowledge, global competition, and global trade. The chapter discusses how Napoleon III used the Paris exhibitions of 1855 and 1867 to promote himself and his Empire and how Franz Joseph engaged in international diplomacy during the Viennese world exhibition on 1873. Pedro II used his prestige to promote Brazilian exhibits in Paris in 1862 and 1857, in Vienna in 1873 and in Philadelphia in 1876.

Creating the Imperial City

This chapter discusses the creation of imperial cities: Paris was remodelled by Napoleon III, the layout of Vienna was altered in the era of Franz Joseph, and Berlin was expanded under Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II from a Prussian into an imperial capital. In each case this meant creating broad boulevards, green spaces, and impressive buildings, but also providing clean water, efficient sewage systems, street lighting, and local transport. Monuments celebrating victories and generals were also part of the urban design. London only built a ceremonial avenue in the twentieth century. Maximilian had great plans for Mexico City based on what he had seen in Paris, Vienna, and Brussels, while Pedro II built Petrópolis, a summer residence in the hills above Rio de Janeiro.

Projecting Imperial Power

The nineteenth century is notable for its newly proclaimed emperors, from Franz I of Austria and Napoleon I in 1804, through Agustín and Pedro, the emperors of Mexico and Brazil, in 1822, to Napoleon III in 1852, Maximilian of Mexico in 1864, Wilhelm I, German emperor, in 1871, and Victoria, empress of India in 1876. These monarchs projected an imperial aura by means of coronations and acclamations, courts, medals, and costumes, portraits and monuments, ceremonial and religion, international exhibitions and museums, festivals and pageants, architecture and town planning. They relied on ancient history for legitimacy while partially espousing modernity. The empress consorts had to find a meaningful role for themselves in a changing world. The first emperors’ successors—Pedro II of Brazil, Franz Joseph of Austria, and Wilhelm II of Germany—expanded their panoply of power, until Pedro was forced to abdicate in 1889 and the First World War brought the Austrian and German empires to an end. Britain invented an imperial myth for its Indian empire in the twentieth century, until George VI relinquished the title of emperor in 1947. The imperial cities of Berlin, Paris, Vienna, and New Delhi bear witness to these vanished empires, as does Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City and the town of Petrópolis in Brazil. How the empires came to an end and how imperial cities and statues are treated nowadays demonstrates the contested place of the emperors in national cultural memory.

Los mapas del Cuerpo de Estado Mayor (1864-1867) referidos a los escenarios de las batallas de Julio César en Hispania. Un singular encargo de Napoleón III a Isabel II / The maps of the Cuerpo de Estado Mayor (1864-1867) referring to the scenes of the battles of Julius Caesar in Hispania. A peculiar request from Napoleon III to the Queen of Spain Isabel II

Uno de los importantes trabajos topográficos del Cuerpo de Estado Mayor español llevados a cabo en la década de 1860 fue la cartografía de los escenarios de las batallas de Julio César en Hispania. Se hicieron a petición de Napoleón III, para ilustrar la Histoire de Jules César que dirigía el emperador francés. Fue una obra ambiciosa y compleja, por la escala empleada (1:20.000) y por la extensión comprendida (4.637 km2). Los trabajos se realizaron en las comarcas del sur de las provincias de Córdoba , en 1864 y principios de 1865, y el resultado se presentó en París en junio de 1865. Un ejemplar de los mapas finales, junto con 12 acuarelas de paisajes, se conserva en la Biblioteca del Palacio Real. Este trabajo reforzó el prestigio del Cuerpo de Estado Mayor. El éxito de la empresa avalaba la opción del general y primer ministro Narváez de confiar al Ejército los trabajos del mapa nacional, en 1866. En 1867 el Estado Mayor llevó a cabo una segunda fase del trabajo, con objeto de completar la zona cartografiada hasta el margen de las láminas previstas. Pero, por diversas razones, hasta 1887 no se publicó el atlas que incluía 4 láminas fruto de los trabajos topográficos efectuados por los oficiales del Estado Mayor, aunque sin indicar en modo alguno la procedencia de los mapas. Un final más bien mezquino para el ingente, rápido y eficaz trabajo realizado por los militares españoles entre 1864 y 1867.

The Ottoman Empire and Europe from the late Westphalian order to the Crimean system: the ’Eastern Question’ Revisited

The ‘Eastern Question’ is one of the most controversial and persistent subjects in the history of international relations. This article looks at two aspects in the evolution of the relations between the Ottoman Empire and Europe. The first one focuses on the importance of the 18th century in the emergence of the ’Eastern Question’. The second one emphasizes on several episodes that may reopen the debate on the origins of the Crimean War. Our research is an attempt to demonstrate that the ’Eastern Question’ was only a piece of a larger puzzle. The more Russia was influential in world politics, the more her contribution became valuable for the stability of the international system. The idea to challenge in the early 1850’s the heritage of the 18th century in world politics (meaning to marginalize Russia in European affairs), did not serve on the long run neither to the security of the Ottoman Empire, neither to the ’new multilateralism’ put forward by Napoleon III.