Sea surface salinity reemergence in an updated North Atlantic in-situ salinity data set

Monthly sea surface salinity (SSS) fields are constructed from observations, using objective mapping on a 1°x1° grid in the Atlantic between 30°S and 50°N in the 1970-2016 period in an update of the data set of Reverdin et al. (2007). Data coverage is heterogeneous, with increased density in 2002 when Argo floats become available, high density along Voluntary Observing Ship lines, and low density south of 10°S. Using lag correlation, the seasonal reemergence of SSS anomalies is investigated between 20°N and 50°N in 5°x5° boxes during the 1993-2016 period, both locally and remotely following the displacements of the deep mixed-layer waters estimated from virtual float trajectories derived from the daily AVISO surface geostrophic currents. Although SSS data are noisy, local SSS reemergence is detected in about half of the boxes, notably in the northeast and southeast, while little reemergence is seen in the central and part of the eastern subtropical gyre. In the same period, sea surface temperature (SST) reemergence is found only slightly more frequently, reflecting the short data duration. However, taking geostrophic advection into account degrades the detection of remote SSS and even SST reemergence. When anomalies are averaged over broader areas, robust evidence of a second and third SSS reemergence peak is found in the northeastern and southeastern parts of the domain, indicating long cold-season persistence of large-scale SSS anomalies, while only a first SST reemergence is seen. An oceanic reanalysis is used to confirm that the correlation analysis indeed reflects the reemergence of subsurface salinity anomalies.

Spatio-temporal variability of the thermodynamic characteristics of the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) over the Indian and Southern Ocean (15oN to 70oS)

<p>The study deals with the thermodynamic characterization of marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) prevailing over regions of Indian Ocean and Indian Ocean sector of Southern Ocean from 29 high-resolution radiosondes launched during the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE-2) and Southern Ocean Expedition (SOE-9). IIOE-2 was conducted during December 2015 onboard ORV Sagar Nidhi during which 11 radiosondes were launched, whereas SOE-9 was conducted during January-March 2017 onboard MV SA Agulhas which had 18 radiosonde ascents. These observations spanned latitudes from ~15<sup>o</sup>N to 70<sup>o</sup>S having crossed three major atmospheric circulation cells: Hadley cell, Ferrell cell and Polar cell. In addition, crucial atmospheric mesoscale phenomena such as inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), sub-tropical jet (STJ) and polar jet (PJ) were encountered along with several oceanic fronts. Analysis of thermodynamic structure of MABL showed large variability in the formation of atmospheric sub-layers such as surface layer, mixed layer, cloud layer and trade wind inversion layer within MABL. MABL height varied spatially from tropics and mid-latitudes (12<sup>o</sup>N to 50<sup>o</sup>S) to polar latitudes (60<sup>o</sup>S to 68<sup>o</sup>S). Deep mixed layer were found over the tropics and mid-latitudes (~700 m) while shallow mixed layer was observed over the polar latitudes (~200 m). Deep mixed layer over the tropics were attributed to intense convective mixing while shallow mixed layer over polar regions was attributed to limited convective overturning associated with negative radiation balance at the surface. Convection was negligible over mid-latitudes (43<sup>o</sup>S to 55<sup>o</sup>S) where most of the atmospheric mixing were forced by frontal systems where lifting of air mass was mechanically driven by high speed winds rather than by convection. The enhanced convection over the tropics was confirmed from higher values of convective available potential energy (CAPE > 1000 J/kg) and large negative values of convective inhibition energy (CINE < -50 J/kg). Over the mid-latitude region (43<sup>o</sup>S to 50<sup>o</sup>S), enhanced advection and detrainment of convection was evident with maximum values of BRN shear (~65 knots) and lowest CAPE (~4 J/kg). Over polar latitudes (~60<sup>o</sup>S to 68<sup>o</sup>S), minimum CAPE (~17 J/kg) and low BRN shear (~5 knots) was noticed, which indicated presence of stable boundary layer conditions. A mesoscale phenomenon (i.e., ITCZ) was witnessed at ~5.92<sup>o</sup>S with highest CAPE ~2535.17 J/kg which signifies large convective instability resulting in strong convective updraft aiding thunderstorm activity and moderate precipitation over ITCZ. Analysis of conserved variables (CVA) revealed formation of second mixed layer (SML) structure between 12<sup>o</sup>N and 40<sup>o</sup>S. However, south of 40<sup>o</sup>S this structure ceases. The characteristics of SML structure and the plausible causes for its existence are also investigated.  </p>

A Mechanism of Mixed Layer Formation in the Indo–Western Pacific Southern Ocean: Preconditioning by an Eddy-Driven Jet-Scale Overturning Circulation

The formation of a narrow band of the deep winter mixed layer (hereinafter “mixed layer wedge”) in the Indo–western Pacific Southern Ocean is examined using an eddy-resolving Parallel Ocean Program (POP) model simulation. The mixed layer wedge starts to deepen in June, centered at 47.5°S, with a meridional scale of only ~2° latitude. Its center is located ~1° north of the model’s Subantarctic Front (SAF). The Argo-based observed mixed layer is similarly narrow and occurs adjacent to the observed SAF. In the small sector of 130°–142°E, where the SAF is persistent and the mixed layer is deepest, the formation of the narrow mixed layer wedge coincides with destratification underneath the mixed layer. This destratification can be attributed primarily to the downwelling branch of a jet-scale overturning circulation (JSOC). The JSOC, which was reported in an earlier study by the authors, is driven by eddy momentum flux convergence and is therefore thermally indirect: its descending branch occurs on the warmer equatorward flank of the SAF, promoting destratification during the warm season. The model-generated net air–sea heat flux reveals a similar wedge-like feature, indicating that the flux contributes to the mixed layer depth wedge, but again this feature is preconditioned by the JSOC. Ekman advection contributes to the formation of the mixed layer, but it occurs farther north of the region where the mixed layer initially deepens. These findings suggest that the eddy-driven JSOC associated with the SAF plays an important role in initiating the narrow, deep mixed layer wedge that forms north of the SAF.

Mixed layer variability and chlorophyll <i>a</i> biomass in the Bay of Bengal

The mixed layer is the most variable and dynamically active part of the marine environment that couples the underlying ocean to the atmosphere and plays an important role in determining the oceanic primary productivity. We examined the basin-scale processes controlling the seasonal variability of mixed layer depth in the Bay of Bengal and its association with chlorophyll using a suite of in situ as well as remote sensing data. A coupling between mixed layer depth and chlorophyll was seen during spring intermonsoon and summer monsoon, but for different reasons. In spring intermonsoon the temperature-dominated stratification and associated shallow mixed layer makes the upper waters of the Bay of Bengal nutrient depleted and oligotrophic. In summer, although the salinity-dominated stratification in the northern Bay of Bengal shallows the mixed layer, the nutrient input from adjoining rivers enhance the surface chlorophyll. This enhancement is confined only to the surface layer and with increase in depth, the chlorophyll biomass decreases rapidly due to reduction in sunlight by suspended sediment. In the south, advection of high salinity waters from the Arabian Sea and westward propagating Rossby waves from the eastern Bay of Bengal led to the formation of deep mixed layer. In contrast, in the Indo–Sri Lanka region, the shallow mixed layer and nutrient enrichment driven by upwelling and Ekman pumping resulted in chlorophyll enhancement. The mismatch between the nitrate and chlorophyll indicated the inadequacy of present data to fully unravel its coupling to mixed layer processes.

Mixed layer variability and chlorophyll <i>a</i> biomass in the Bay of Bengal

Mixed layer is the most variable and dynamically active part of the marine environment that couples the underlying ocean to the atmosphere and plays an important role in determining the chlorophyll concentration. In this paper we examined the seasonal variability of the mixed layer depth in the Bay of Bengal, the factors responsible for it and the coupling of mixed layer processes to the chlorophyll biomass using a suite of in situ as well as remote sensing data. The basin-wide mixed layer depth was the shallowest during spring intermonsoon, which was associated with strong themohaline stratification of the upper water column. The prevailing winds which were the weakest of all the seasons were unable to break the stratification leading to the observed shallow mixed layer. Consistent with the warm oligotrophic upper ocean, the surface chlorophyll concentrations were the least and the vertical profile of chlorophyll was characterized by a subsurface chlorophyll maximum. Similarly, during summer though the monsoon winds were the strongest they were unable to break the upper ocean haline-stratification in the northern Bay brought about by a combination of excess precipitation over evaporation and fresh water influx from rivers adjoining the Bay of Bengal. Consistent with this though the nitrate concentrations were high in the northern part of the Bay, the chlorophyll concentrations were low indicating the light limitation. In contrast, in the south, advection of high salinity waters from the Arabian Sea coupled with the westward propagating Rossby waves of annual periodicity were able to decrease stability of the upper water column and the prevailing monsoon winds were able to initiate deep mixing leading to the observed deep mixed layer. The high chlorophyll concentration observed in the south resulted from the positive wind stress curl which pumped nutrient rich subsurface waters to the euphotic zone. The southward extension of the shallow mixed layer in fall intermonsoon resulted from the advection of low salinity waters from the northern Bay combined with the secondary heating by the incoming short wave radiation. The satellite-derived chlorophyll pigment concentration during fall intermonsoon was similar to that of summer but with reduced values. The basin-wide deep mixed layer during winter resulted from a combination of reduced short wave radiation, increase in salinity and comparatively stronger winds. The mismatch between the low nitrate and comparatively higher chlorophyll biomass during winter indicated the efficacy of the limited nitrate data to adequately resolve the coupling between the mixed layer processes and the chlorophyll biomass.