Evaluating Transformational Adaptation in Smallholder Farming: Insights from an Evidence Review

The literature on smallholder farming and climate change adaptation (CCA) has predominantly investigated the barriers to and determinants of farmer uptake of adaptation interventions. Although useful, this evidence fails to highlight the changes or persistence of adaptation responses over time. Studies usually adopt a narrow focus on incremental actions that provide limited insights into transformative adaptation pathways and how fundamental shifts in policy can address the root causes of vulnerability across different sectors and dimensions. Drawing on an evidence synthesis commissioned by the International Fund for Agricultural Development’s Independent Office of Evaluation, this chapter outlines how lessons from CCA interventions can be transferred via three learning domains that are essential for transformational change: scaling-up (in its multiple forms), knowledge management, and the human-environment nexus. We discuss the implications of our findings on monitoring, evaluation, and learning, highlighting the challenges that evaluators may face in capturing (a) the persistence or durability of transformational pathways, (b) the complexity of “super-wicked” problems, and (c) the relevance of context-dependent dynamics, within a landscape setting. We also address the contribution of evidence reviews to contemporary debates around development policy linked to climate change and agriculture, and the implications and value of such reviews to provide independent scientific rigor and robustness to conventional programmatic evaluations.

Reflections on Enhancing the Impact of Climate Risk Management Through Transformative Adaptation

Climate risk management is part of the response to the threat of climate change. Much effort has focused on the promotion on climate-resilient agriculture. There continues to be undue focus on technology solutions per se and not enough attention on the coupling of technologies and socio-economics and how they become embedded in ecological systems underpinning smallholder agriculture. In this perspective, we argue that an intertwined social–ecological–technological systems approach to climate risk management is needed to ensure that climate-resilient agriculture contributes more to the realization of goals of the Paris Agreement and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. Furthermore, in line with broader policy thinking on the need for transformative change toward sustainably living on the planet and “leaving no one behind,” a greater focus on transformative adaptation is required. Transformative adaptation tackles the root causes of vulnerability including unevenly distributed power relations, and extant networks of control and influence. There are, however, relatively few examples of moving from the theory of transformative adaptation to practice. Three recent practical examples of transdisciplinary approaches, that we have direct experience of as researchers, provide lessons for initial ways forward as part of climate risk management initiatives. Examples from Vietnam, East and Southern Africa, and Guatemala illustrate the importance of inter- and transdisciplinary responses whereby the inequalities underlying unequal power structures may be addressed, enabling farmers to pursue climate risk management pathways that contribute to climate resilience and human development, as epitomized by the Sustainable Development Goals.

Exploring the Convergence of Resilience Processes and Sustainable Outcomes in Post-COVID, Post-Glasgow Economies

Resilience and sustainability have each offered a path forward for post-COVID economic recovery and a post-Glasgow global financial order. Yet, the relationships between these two concepts are largely unexplored in economic policy and investment strategies. In light of emerging systemic risks and global demands for more resolute investments in resilience and sustainability, this perspective article took the position that policymakers must begin to draw greater conceptual, empirical, and practical linkages between sustainability and resilience. This perspective article provided a simplified framework for understanding the positively reinforcing, negatively conflicting, and neutral relationships between different types of resilience and sustainability consistent with two propositions. The Reinforcement Proposition argues (i) that various resilience processes may drive sustainable outcomes, and/or (ii) that an allocation of sustainable resources may reinforce resilience processes, as well as the transformative adaptation of markets. Conversely, the Conflict Proposition argues (i) that certain resilience processes may perpetuate stability features that may thwart an economic transition toward sustainability, and/or (ii) that certain sustainability outcomes associated with reorganized economic structures and relationships may undermine resources for resilience. This framework provides policymakers with an opportunity to evaluate the convergent and conflicting trade-offs of resilience processes and sustainable outcomes.

Evaluating Risk and Possible Adaptations to Climate Change Under a Socio-Ecological System Approach

Evidence suggests that climate change could drastically reduce Mexico's agricultural productivity with severe socio-ecological consequences. Population growth and the increasing demand of resources will exacerbate these impacts. Focusing on rainfed maize production, we evaluate the socio-ecological risk that municipalities currently face and how climate change could modify it. Municipalities were classified based on their biophysical and socioeconomic traits like temperature, precipitation, population, gross domestic product, marginalization, and agricultural subsidies. The study identifies municipalities that would face higher risk under climate change conditions, and it evaluates whether increases in agricultural subsidies could be effective for reducing the farmers' future risk. Our results show that during the 2010's, 36.8% of the municipalities and 15% of the population were at very high and high risk, respectively. By 2070, under a high-warming scenario these figures increase to 56.5 and 18.5%. We find that a generalized augment in agricultural subsidies is not enough to compensate for the effects of climate change on the socio-ecological risk of rainfed maize producers. We suggest that transformative adaptation is required for managing the agricultural risk that socio-ecological systems experience under climate change conditions. Such adaptation strategies should include poverty alleviation, promotion of resistant and native varieties of crops, capacity building to improve management and water use, sustainable technification, and soil restoration.

Climate Resilient Vegetable Farming: A Review

Climate change is one of the global challenges faced by the mankind today with the continuously rising temperature, triggering a host of extreme weather events such as heat waves, drought, and flooding. These climate induced challenges are manifesting themselves rapidly, causing socio-economic insecurities and health challenges, particularly in marginalized communities. There is increasing evidence of indirect associations between climate change and the rise in the rates of malnutrition, poor health, hunger and starvation, as well as food and water insecurity. In addition, climate-change impacts have put an additional pressure on already stressed natural resource base, reducing the resilience of agro-ecosystems that are, in part, providing food and nutritional security in rural communities. Tackling these challenges requires a paradigm shift from the current incremental adaptation strategies towards transformative alternatives that also place an equal emphasis on human nutrition and health, as well as environmental sustainability. In the context of marginalized farming communities, a transformative adaptation strategy is defined as one that causes a disruptive, but desirable and sustainable change to the social– ecological state of the system. In the context of this paper, the inclusion of adaptable nutrient dense vegetable crops into marginalized agricultural systems and dominant food systems is considered part of transformative adaptation.

Transformative climate adaptation in the United States: Trends and prospects

As climate change intensifies, civil society is increasingly calling for transformative adaptation that redresses drivers of climate vulnerability. We review trends in how U.S. federal government, private industry and civil society are planning for climate adaptation. We find growing divergence in their approaches and impacts. This incoherence increases maladaptive investment in climate-blind infrastructure, justice-blind reforms in financial and professional sectors, and greater societal vulnerability to climate impacts. If these actors were to proactively and deliberatively engage in transformative adaptation, they would need to address the material, relational and normative factors that hold current systems in place. Drawing on a review of transformation and collective impact literatures, we conclude with directions for research and policy engagement to support more transformative adaptation moving forward.

Climate change impacts and transformative adaptation strategies among farming households in the City of Koronadal, Philippines

Farmers in the Roxas mountain range, City of Koronadal used to have bountiful harvests during the time when the city was still free from climate-related hazards. However, this situation has recently changed due to the increasing climate-related risk events. Moreover, localized baseline scientific climate information is limited to foster the development of appropriate adaptations and policies toward climate-resilient communities. This study assessed the climate trends and the changes, impacts, and adaptation strategies of farm households in five barangays in the Roxas mountain range, Koronadal City, South Cotabato. The study conducted household surveys with 265 respondents, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. In using Mann-Kendall test statistics, time series analysis and one-way analysis of variance, the findings from 1981 to 2012 show increasing trends with significant changes (p <0.01) in mean minimum temperature, increasing by 0.74 °C for three decades. In contrast, mean maximum temperature showed a decreasing trend with an average decrease of 0.65 °C, p <0.01). In three decadal periods, an average increase of 0.04 °C in monthly mean temperature was observed. Rainfall patterns during the same period also show significant changes in the months of June (p <0.01), August, and December (p <0.05); these findings suggest that climate change occurred. Floods, landslides, and droughts were experienced by the communities, which had devastating socioeconomic and environmental impacts. The existing adaptation strategies are just stop-gap solutions that address the effects of climate change but do not consider the root causes. To consider future changes in climate patterns, the socioeconomic and political structure and processes of the communities need to change; this can be achieved if multifaceted drivers of climate change hazards and their impacts are appropriately and immediately addressed. Some grassroot-level transformative adaptation strategies identified in the study consist of socioeconomic facets, specifically, investment in children’s education, financial management, family planning, and development of alternative on-farm and nonfarm livelihood options. The environmental aspect, which includes promoting agroforestry system, water impoundment technologies, and advanced early warning system, were also considered.

At the Water's Edge: Coastal Settlement, Transformative Adaptation, and Well-Being in an Era of Dynamic Climate Risk

With accelerating climate change, US coastal communities are experiencing increased flood risk intensity, resulting from accelerated sea level rise and stronger storms. These conditions place pressure on municipalities and local residents to consider a range of new disaster risk reduction programs, climate resilience initiatives, and in some cases transformative adaptation strategies (e.g., managed retreat and relocation from highly vulnerable, low-elevation locations). Researchers have increasingly understood that these climate risks and adaptation actions have significant impacts on the quality of life, well-being, and mental health of urban coastal residents. We explore these relationships and define conditions under which adaptation practices will affect communities and residents. Specifically, we assess climate and environmental stressors, community change, and well-being by utilizing the growing climate change literature and the parallel social science literature on risk and hazards, environmental psychology, and urban geography work, heretofore not widely integrated into work on climate adaptation. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Public Health, Volume 42 is April 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.