Deradicalization in Germany

The purpose of Chapter 3 is to elucidate the deradicalization and counter-extremism approaches that have been used in Germany. Relative to other countries, Germany has had a sustained history of involvement in efforts to rehabilitate extremists (right wing and other) that could serve as models for similar efforts worldwide. These tactics are often referred to as countering violent extremism (CVE). The chapter is divided into sections discussing the history of CVE in Germany, constraints and difficulties encountered by the German CVE enterprise, assessment of the success of CVE efforts in Germany, and anticipated developments within the field.

Extremism Rising

In Chapter 1, the reader is introduced to the current context within which right-wing extremism in Europe occurs. The chapter begins with a discussion of the changing political and economic environments within Europe and the United States that have increased the appeal and expression of right-wing views over the past decade. Issues discussed include ramifications of globalization, refugee migration into Europe, populism, the electoral success of right-wing parties, and the history of national socialism in Germany. The actual extent of right-wing militancy is juxtaposed to the relatively modest concern expressed toward right-wing, relative to Islamic extremism. Finally, the reader is introduced to the specific conceptual approach taken by the authors in examining German right-wing extremism.

Hardships of Extremism

Chapter 8 reports on circumstances and reasons that our interviewees disengaged from the right-wing movement. The chapter begins by combining our 3N approach with a commonly cited “push–pull” framework to understand the mechanisms through which disengagement may typically occur. Analyses revealed that it was unlikely for a singular event to cause disengagement; rather, circumstances pertinent to several radicalization factors (the three Ns) were likely to be present. Diverging from other accounts of disengagement, the most frequently cited reason for leaving pertained to disillusionment with the ideological narrative advanced within the right wing. Throughout, the authors highlight the commonalities of their findings with those of past research, revealing the universal process of radicalization and deradicalization that underlies seemingly disparate special cases. The chapter also discusses the components of disengagement from extremism that appear to be unique to the German context.

Leaving the Movement and Life in the Aftermath

The first part of Chapter 9 continues the examination of how the interviewees ultimately decided to separate themselves from the extremist movement. The authors identify the most typical routes of leaving and analyze the role of social support and disengagement programs in navigating this process. The latter part of the chapter explores the lives of the interviewees after leaving the movement, an aspect of the extremists’ journey that until now received sparse research attention. Overall, the authors’ find that upon leaving, the experience of hardships is significantly reduced. But feelings of insignificance skyrocket as former extremists cope with the challenges of cutting ties with their previous social network, search for a new purpose in life, and experience self-condemnation in light of their prior actions as an extremist. Finally, the authors explore the extent to which participating in a systematic disengagement program mitigated the interviewees’ negative experiences.

Entry into the Extreme Right

Chapter 6 examines what motivated the interviewees to join extreme right-wing groups and organizations. Analyses revealed that the most common soon-to-be-extremist was someone who was socially frustrated, although there were no consistent culprits responsible for their distress. It turns out that individuals joined the extreme milieu because they viewed it as place where they could find significance and acceptance—where they could be seen as idealistic revolutionaries and belong to a group that gave them purpose. Analyses further revealed the social network component of radicalization, in that the vast majority of those interviewed were introduced to Far Right organizations through various social connections. Specific analysis is applied to understand how the social aspect of radicalization occurred and the role of the hate music scene in facilitating this process. Connections are drawn to previous work with both Far Right and other extremists that addressed those processes.

The N Trilogy

Chapter 4 presents the theoretical framework that forms the backbone of the remaining chapters in the book. This framework identifies three basic factors (the three Ns) that perform important roles within the radicalization process—that is, the process whereby individuals comes to endorse and/or act upon an extreme ideology. These factors are the individual’s psychological needs, the narratives to which individual are exposed, and the social networks that embrace those narratives. These factors are first discussed within the context of extremism as a general phenomenon, before being applied to violent extremism as its specific case. Throughout the discussion, the analysis is specifically applied to right-wing extremism in Germany. The chapter ends by examining alternative models of radicalization and how these models are related to the three-factor framework advanced here.

EpilogueThe neo-Nazi Experience and the Psychology of Radicalization

Chapter 10 provides further comment on some of the important findings and implications of those findings. The chapter begins with a discussion of the 3N framework that guided the authors’ interpretations and informed the hypotheses tested in the earlier chapters. The authors discuss whether these insights speak to universals of the human condition or are unique to the German context and the historical experience with social nationalism. Further discussion is given to the role of emotions and music within the milieu, as well as to the hardships experienced within the extremist environment that breed disillusionment and disengagement from right-wing organizations. The chapter ends by exploring the implications of our findings for helping these individuals reintegrate into the mainstream society.

Inside the Extreme Right

Chapter 7 turns to the interviewees’ phase of membership within the movement. For the majority of the interviewees, membership satisfied their quest for significance, purpose and acceptance. Nonetheless, life on the fringes of society was not all pleasant. Analyses revealed a significant increase over time in hardships experienced by our research participants, specifically, hardships related to the experience of discrimination and physical harm. The chapter explores these experiences in some detail and examines their impact on members’ commitment to the extreme movement. Finally, we examined participation in violence, and whether belief in various ideological ploys of the right-wing narrative (i.e., those that justify violence on moral grounds or denigrate the opposition) augmented individuals’ tendency to participate in violence.

The Interviews

Chapter 5 discusses the research methodology utilized to examine hypotheses about the different phases of the German extremists’ journey, as derived from the theoretical framework described in Chapter 4. Specifically, interviews were conducted with individuals who were formerly members of right-wing extremist organizations, but who have since left these groups behind. The chapter discusses important demographic characteristics of the interviewees, relating these characteristics to what is known about the demographics of right-wing extremists in Germany. Details of the interview process, as well as reasons for interview decisions, are discussed. Finally, the methodology used to content analyze the interviews is described, including details about the coding process and the calculation of interrater agreement.

Right-Wing Extremism in Germany

Chapter 2 provides an overview of German right-wing extremism. A history of German right-wing extremism is first discussed, tracing the formation of right-wing political parties and militant groups in this country in the post–World War II period. Critical periods and events are highlighted, including, among others, the reunification of East and West Germany and the current “refugee crisis.” The chapter describes important groups and organizations that operate or have operated within the right-wing milieu over the last decades. These groups include political parties, subcultural groups, and organizations that have committed terrorist attacks. These latter groups are discussed in terms of their formation, terrorist actions, and consequences.