Element Abundances and FIP: SEPs, Corona, and Solar Wind

We have used abundance measurements to identify the sources and the physical processes of acceleration and transport of SEPs. Here we study energetic particles themselves as samples of the solar corona that is their origin, distinguishing the corona from the photosphere and the SEPs from the solar wind. Theoretically, differences in the first ionization potential “FIP effect” may distinguish closed- and open-field regions at the base of the corona, which may also distinguish SEPs from the solar wind. There is not a single coronal FIP effect, but two patterns, maybe three. Are there variations? What about He?

Summary and Conclusions

In this chapter we summarize our current understanding of SEPs, of properties of the sites of their origin and of the physical processes that accelerate or modify them. These processes can leave an indelible mark on the abundances of elements, isotopes, ionization states, anisotropies, energy spectra and time profiles of the SEPs. Transport of the ions to us along magnetic fields can impose new variations in large events or even enhance the visibility of the source parameters as the SEPs expand into the heliosphere. We lack physical models that can follow the complexity of SEP abundance variations.

A Turbulent History

Large solar energetic-particle (SEP) events are clearly associated in time with eruptive phenomena on the Sun, but how? When large SEP events were first observed, flares were the only visible candidate, and diffusion theory was stretched to explain how the particles could spread through space, as widely as observed. The observation of coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and the wide, fast shock waves they can drive, provided better candidates later. Then small events were found with 1000-fold enhancements in 3He/4He that required a different kind of source—should we reconsider flares, or their open-field cousins, solar jets? The 3He-rich events were soon associated with the electron beams that produce type III radio bursts. It seems the radio astronomers knew of both SEP sources all along. Sometimes the distinction between the sources is blurred when shocks reaccelerate residual 3He-rich impulsive suprathermal ions. Eventually, however, we would even begin to measure the source-plasma temperature that helps to better distinguish the SEP sources.

Hydrogen Abundances and Shock Waves

How well do protons fit into the abundance patterns of the other elements? Protons have Q = 1 and A/Q = 1 at all temperatures of interest. When does their relative abundance fit on the power law in A/Q defined by the elements with A/Q > 2? For small “pure” impulsive events, protons fit well, but for larger CME-associated impulsive events, where shock waves boost the intensities, protons are enhanced a factor of order ten by addition of seed protons from the ambient plasma. During most large gradual SEP events with strong shock waves, protons again fit the power law, but with weaker or quasi-perpendicular shock waves, dominated by residual impulsive seed particle abundances at high Z, again protons are enhanced. Proton enhancements occur when moderately weak shock waves happen to sample a two-component seed population with dominant protons from the ambient coronal plasma and impulsive suprathermal ions at high Z; thus proton-enhanced events are a surprising new signature of shock acceleration in jets. A/Q measures the rigidity dependence of both acceleration and transport but does not help us distinguish the two. Energy-spectral indices and abundances are correlated for most gradual events but not when impulsive ions are present; thus we end with powerful new correlations that probe both acceleration and transport.

Distinguishing the Sources

Our discussion of history has covered many of the observations that have led to the ideas of acceleration by shock waves or by magnetic reconnection in gradual and impulsive solar energetic particle (SEP) events, respectively. We now present other compelling observations, including onset timing, SEP-shock correlations, injection time profiles, high-energy spectral knees, e/p ratios, and intensity dropouts caused by a compact source, that have helped clarify these acceleration mechanisms and sources. However, some of the newest evidence now comes from source-plasma temperatures. In this and the next two chapters, we will find that impulsive events come from solar active regions at ≈ 3 MK, controlling ionization states Q, hence A/Q, and, in most gradual events, shocks accelerate ambient coronal material from ≤1.6 MK. When SEPs are trapped on closed loops they supply the energy for flares. In addition to helping to define their own origin, SEPs also probe the structure of the interplanetary magnetic field.

Measurements of SEPs

Those who study solar energetic particles (SEPs) should be aware of the basic types of experiments that have contributed most of the observations studied in this book, and especially the tradeoff of their strengths and weaknesses, and how they fail. However, this is not a comprehensive review, only an introduction. We focus on dE/dx vs. E instruments that are the workhorses of SEP studies, and also study time-of-flight vs. E instruments that dominate precision measurements below 1 MeV amu−1. Single-detector instruments and high-energy techniques are discussed briefly as are supplementary data and CME lists.

Impulsive SEP Events (and Flares)

Abstract3He-rich, Fe-rich, and enriched in elements with Z > 50, the abundances of solar energetic particles (SEPs) from the small impulsive SEP events stand out as luminaries in our study. The 3He is enhanced by resonant wave-particle interactions. Element abundances increase 1000-fold as the ~3.6 power of the mass-to-charge ratio A/Q from He to heavy elements like Au or Pb, enhanced during acceleration in islands of magnetic reconnection in solar jets, and probably also in flares. This power-law of enhancement vs. A/Q implies Q determined by a source temperature of 2.5–3.2 MK, typical of jets from solar active regions where these impulsive SEPs occur. However, a few small events are unusual; several have suppressed 4He, and rarely, a few very small events with steep spectra have elements N or S greatly enhanced, perhaps by the same resonant-wave mechanism that enhances 3He. Which mechanism will dominate? The impulsive SEP events we see are associated with narrow CMEs, from solar jets where magnetic reconnection on open field lines gives energetic particles and CMEs direct access to space. Gamma-ray lines tell us that the same acceleration physics may occur in flares.

Introducing the Sun and SEPs

The structure of the Sun, with its energy generation and heating, creates convection and differential rotation of the outer solar plasma. This convection and rotation of the ionized plasma generates the solar magnetic field. This field and its variation spawn all of the solar activity: solar active regions, flares, jets, and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Solar activity provides the origin and environment for both the impulsive and gradual solar energetic particle (SEP) events. This chapter introduces the background environment and basic properties of SEP events, time durations, abundances, and solar cycle variations.

High Energies and Radiation Effects

In this chapter we characterize the high-energy spectra of protons that can penetrate shielding and determine the radiation dose to humans and equipment in space. High-energy spectral breaks or “knees”, seen in all large SEP events, determine the contribution of highly penetrating protons. The streaming limit, discussed earlier, places an upper bound on particle fluences early in events and the radial variation of intensities is important for near-solar and deep-space missions. The streaming limit is a strong function of radial distance from the Sun. We also consider requirements for a radiation storm shelter for deep space, a mission to Mars, suitability of exoplanets for life, and radiation-induced chemistry of the upper atmosphere of Earth.

Gradual SEP Events

Gradual solar energetic-particle (SEP) events are “big proton events” and are usually much more “gradual” in their decay than in their onset. As their intensities increase, particles streaming away from the shock amplify Alfvén waves that scatter subsequent particles, increasing their acceleration, eventually limiting ion flow at the “streaming limit.” Waves generated by higher-speed protons running ahead can also throttle the flow of lower-energy ions, flattening spectra and altering abundances in the biggest SEP events. Thus, we find that the A/Q-dependence of scattering causes element-abundance patterns varying in space and time, which define source-plasma temperatures T, since the pattern of Q values of the ions depends upon temperature. Differences in T explain much of the variation of element abundances in gradual SEP events. In nearly 70% of gradual events, SEPs are shock-accelerated from ambient coronal plasma of ~0.8–1.6 MK, while 24% of the events involve material with T ≈ 2–4 MK re-accelerated from residual impulsive-suprathermal ions with pre-enhanced abundances. This source-plasma temperature can occasionally vary with solar longitude across the face of a shock. Non-thermal variations in ion abundances in gradual SEP events reaccelerated from the 2–4 MK impulsive source plasma are reduced, relative to those in the original impulsive SEPs, probably because the accelerating shock waves sample a pool of ions from multiple jet sources. Late in gradual events, SEPs become magnetically trapped in a reservoir behind the CME where spectra are uniform in space and decrease adiabatically in time as the magnetic bottle containing them slowly expands. Finally, we find variations of the He/O abundance ratio in the source plasma of different events.