Printing Tibetan Epistolaria: A Bibliographical Analysis of Epistolary Transformations from Manuscript to Xylograph

In Tibetan tradition, letter writing is a sophisticated art in which the material aspects of a letter––paper format, script style and size, text spacing and layout––are integral to the letter's semantic content. What meaning is lost and gained in the transformation from manuscript original to printed edition? What scribal and editorial decisions are at play in this textual transformation? My aims in this article are twofold: to introduce scholars of global epistolary literatures to the Tibetan epistolary tradition, and to examine the ways in which editing and printing epistolaria can thoroughly transform letters’ materiality and meaning. This study not only contributes a bibliographical analysis of printed Tibetan epistolaria, but also offers a model for investigating how woodblock printing or other printing technologies can change the way epistolary texts both look and function.

Writing Upwards: Letters to Robert Menzies, Australian Prime Minister, 1949–1966

Robert Gordon Menzies received approximately 22,000 letters during his record-breaking second term of office as Australia’s Prime Minister (1949–66). This article examines the corpus as an example of “writing upwards,” a distinctive epistolary genre in which the weak wrote to the powerful, to praise them, berate them, abuse them, or perhaps wish them a happy birthday. From this perspective, the Menzies correspondence takes its place alongside the correspondence of other twentieth-century leaders that has already attracted scholarly and popular interest (the Belgian monarchy, Hitler, Mussolini, Mitterrand, Obama). After surveying this literature and establishing the Australian context, I give a brief presentation of the corpus as a whole. I then focus on one fundamental assumption of letter writers engaged in “writing upwards”: they believed their leader or superior was directly accessible and that they could establish a personal connection with him. By cutting through bureaucratic red tape and by using the epistolary hotline to the top, they could solve a problem or at least make their grievance heard. I indicate the difficulties and illusions they experienced, and outline the tactics deployed by Menzies’s secretariat in responding to their letters.

An Empire of Letters: The Vindolanda Tablets, Epistolarity, and Roman Governance

Around 800 Roman tilia—writing tablets made from folded slivers of wood veneer and a little over postcard size—have been found in archaeological investigations at Vindolanda, a Roman fort in northern England. Dated to the period 85 CE to 130 CE, their existence is helping revise knowledge of the Roman letter and the part it played in how military governance was organized, the ways in which personal, public, and military aspects were interrelated, as well as informing other relationships existing between the occupying imperial legions and local Britons. Discussion focuses on four connected areas of inquiry. Firstly, it explores the relationship of the several hundred letters to the many other kinds of Vindolanda writings, for this gives perspective on the boundaries of these different genres and the uses to which they were put. Secondly, it analyzes the many overlaps that exist between what are one-to-one letters and what are public documents, and it considers the significance of this for understanding the legion as a form of familia. Thirdly, it discusses the role that letters and their cognates, and writing and records generally, played in Roman military occupation and rule. The Vindolanda letters had a particular import because their characteristic mode of expression facilitated and enhanced connections between members of the auxiliary cohorts, in ensuring that the performance of military duties occurred in the context of familia-like bonds, and for this to permeate beyond the letters, to the life-and-death activities of soldiering involved. And fourthly, it discusses the importance for epistolary studies of these matters.

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Literary Criticism in the Epistolary Mode

This paper is an inquiry into the distinct potential of the epistolary voice in literary criticism. What can writers do in letters to address literary matters that other genres do not allow with the same ease and persuasive power? And if so, what is it that letters can do and how is it done? In this paper, I examine two early medieval Chinese texts about literature—an essay and a letter, both written by Cao Pi—and compare their rhetorical strategies in the light of epistolarity. I draw upon letters about literature by other writers, in particular, by Cao Zhi, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, John Keats, and Gertrud Kolmar. I propose that writers throughout history and across cultures were highly aware of the generic possibilities of the epistolary mode for the writing of literary criticism and purposely employed it in a variety of ways spanning the range from intimate family letter to openly fictional, published letter.

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Table of ContentsLetter from the Editor

Propaganda, Patriotism, and News: Printing Discovered and Intercepted Letters In England, 1571–1600

In this article I propose that the relatively few intercepted and discovered letters printed during the reign of Elizabeth I fall chiefly into three categories: they were published as propaganda, as patriotic statement, and as news reportage. Although Elizabeth and her ministers published intercepted and discovered letters on a strictly ad hoc and contingent basis, the pamphlets and books in which these letters appear, along with associated ideological and polemical material, reveals determined uses of intercepted and discovered letters in print. Catholics likewise printed intercepted letters as propaganda to confront Elizabeth’s anti-Catholic policies through their own propaganda apparatus on the continent. Intercepted letters were also printed less frequently to encourage religious and state patriotism, while other intercepted letters were printed solely as new reportage with no overt ideological intent. Because intercepted and discovered letters, as bearers of secret information, were understood to reveal sincere intention and genuine motivation, all of the publications assessed here demonstrate that such letters not only could be used as effective tools to shape cultural perceptions, but could also be cast as persuasive written testimony, as legal proof and as documentary authentication.

Manipulating the Message: Letters of Gelasius and Nicholas I on Papal Authority

Gelasius I, bishop of Rome during the problematic period of Odoacer’s replacement as rex Italiae in 493, was greatly concerned with the power of the bishop of Rome. While Gelasius was one of the most significant bishops of the first five hundred years of the Roman church, he is primarily known for his letter to the Byzantine emperor Anastasius in 494. His Epistula 12 introduced the controversial theory of “two powers” or “two swords.” The idea was taken up in the mid-ninth century by another champion for papal primacy, when Nicholas I embedded a quote from Gelasius in his denunciation of the Byzantine emperor Michael III. I examine the use of political rhetoric in ecclesiastical contexts in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, in particular the way that extracts from such letters could go on to have a life of their own in canon law. Finally, I measure the historical impact of each letter as a form of soft diplomacy.

Letters, Expectations, and the Ancient Regime in Charlotte Smith’s The Old Manor House

This essay shows how Charlotte Smith used embedded letters and their framing narratives to convey a detailed, complex, and critical analysis of the dynamics of traditional English society that could not be more openly expressed in 1793. Special attention is paid to the initial encapsulating letter, and to Smith’s treatment of clandestine and unseen letters.