Probability in Hilbert Space

2021 ◽  
pp. 93-167
Author(s):  
Jochen Rau
Keyword(s):  
Hilbert Space ◽  
Quantum Theory ◽  
Experimental Evidence ◽  
Linear Algebra ◽  
Classical Limit ◽  
Logical Structure ◽  
Complex Hilbert Space ◽  
Mathematical Representation ◽  
Mathematical Framework ◽  
Two Level Systems

This chapter introduces the mathematical framework, basic rules, and some key results of quantum theory. After a succinct overview of linear algebra and an introduction to complex Hilbert space, it investigates the correspondence between subspaces of Hilbert space and propositions, their logical structure, and how the pertinent probabilities are calculated. It discusses the mathematical representation of states, observables, and transformations, as well as the rules for calculating expectation values and uncertainties, and for updating states after a measurement. Particular attention is paid to two-level systems, or ‘qubits’, and the connection is made with experimental evidence about binary measurements. The properties of composite systems are discussed in detail, notably the phenomenon of entanglement. The chapter concludes with an investigation of conceptual issues regarding realism, non-contextuality, and locality, as well as the classical limit.

Qubits and the Framework of Quantum Mechanics

2006 ◽  
Author(s):  
Phillip Kaye ◽  
Raymond Laflamme ◽  
Michele Mosca
Keyword(s):  
Hilbert Space ◽  
Quantum Mechanics ◽  
Quantum Computing ◽  
Quantum Information ◽  
State Space ◽  
Quantum Physics ◽  
Complex Hilbert Space ◽  
The State ◽  
Mathematical Framework ◽  
Infinite Dimensional

In this section we introduce the framework of quantum mechanics as it pertains to the types of systems we will consider for quantum computing. Here we also introduce the notion of a quantum bit or ‘qubit’, which is a fundamental concept for quantum computing. At the beginning of the twentieth century, it was believed by most that the laws of Newton and Maxwell were the correct laws of physics. By the 1930s, however, it had become apparent that these classical theories faced serious problems in trying to account for the observed results of certain experiments. As a result, a new mathematical framework for physics called quantum mechanics was formulated, and new theories of physics called quantum physics were developed in this framework. Quantum physics includes the physical theories of quantum electrodynamics and quantum field theory, but we do not need to know these physical theories in order to learn about quantum information. Quantum information is the result of reformulating information theory in this quantum framework. We saw in Section 1.6 an example of a two-state quantum system: a photon that is constrained to follow one of two distinguishable paths. We identified the two distinguishable paths with the 2-dimensional basis vectors and then noted that a general ‘path state’ of the photon can be described by a complex vector with |α0|2 +|α1|2 = 1. This simple example captures the essence of the first postulate, which tells us how physical states are represented in quantum mechanics. Depending on the degree of freedom (i.e. the type of state) of the system being considered, H may be infinite-dimensional. For example, if the state refers to the position of a particle that is free to occupy any point in some region of space, the associated Hilbert space is usually taken to be a continuous (and thus infinite-dimensional) space. It is worth noting that in practice, with finite resources, we cannot distinguish a continuous state space from one with a discrete state space having a sufficiently small minimum spacing between adjacent locations. For describing realistic models of quantum computation, we will typically only be interested in degrees of freedom for which the state is described by a vector in a finite-dimensional (complex) Hilbert space.

The Mathematics of Quantum Mechanics

2019 ◽  
pp. 30-41
Author(s):  
Jeffrey A. Barrett
Keyword(s):  
Hilbert Space ◽  
Quantum Mechanics ◽  
Physical Properties ◽  
State Space ◽  
Linear Algebra ◽  
Linear Operators ◽  
Mathematical Representation ◽  
Quantum Mechanical ◽  
Standard Formulation ◽  
Schrödinger Picture

Quantum mechanics is written in the language of linear algebra. On the Schrodinger picture the theory represents quantum-mechanical states using the elements of a Hilbert space and represents observable physical properties and the standard dynamics using the linear operators on the state space. We consider the mathematical notions for understanding and working with the standard formulation of quantum mechanics. Each mathematical notion is characterized geometrically, algebraically, and physically. The mathematical representation of quantum-mechanical superpositions is discussed.

Quantum theory in complex Hilbert space

1988 ◽  
Vol 102 (3) ◽  
pp. 325-329 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. S. Sharma
Keyword(s):  
Hilbert Space ◽  
Quantum Theory ◽  
Complex Hilbert Space

scholarly journals Quantum theory based on real numbers can be experimentally falsified

Nature ◽  
2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marc-Olivier Renou ◽  
David Trillo ◽  
Mirjam Weilenmann ◽  
Thinh P. Le ◽  
Armin Tavakoli ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Hilbert Space ◽  
Quantum Theory ◽  
Hilbert Spaces ◽  
Complex Hilbert Space ◽  
Quantum States ◽  
Complex Numbers ◽  
Real Numbers ◽  
Quantum Formalism ◽  
Physical Experiments ◽  
Independent States

AbstractAlthough complex numbers are essential in mathematics, they are not needed to describe physical experiments, as those are expressed in terms of probabilities, hence real numbers. Physics, however, aims to explain, rather than describe, experiments through theories. Although most theories of physics are based on real numbers, quantum theory was the first to be formulated in terms of operators acting on complex Hilbert spaces1,2. This has puzzled countless physicists, including the fathers of the theory, for whom a real version of quantum theory, in terms of real operators, seemed much more natural3. In fact, previous studies have shown that such a ‘real quantum theory’ can reproduce the outcomes of any multipartite experiment, as long as the parts share arbitrary real quantum states4. Here we investigate whether complex numbers are actually needed in the quantum formalism. We show this to be case by proving that real and complex Hilbert-space formulations of quantum theory make different predictions in network scenarios comprising independent states and measurements. This allows us to devise a Bell-like experiment, the successful realization of which would disprove real quantum theory, in the same way as standard Bell experiments disproved local physics.

scholarly journals Conjugates, Filters and Quantum Mechanics

Quantum ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 3 ◽  
pp. 158 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alexander Wilce
Keyword(s):  
Hilbert Space ◽  
Quantum Theory ◽  
Probabilistic Models ◽  
Complex Hilbert Space ◽  
Bipartite State ◽  
Conjugate System ◽  
Jordan Structure ◽  
Finite Dimensional ◽  
Basic Measurement ◽  
The Cost

The Jordan structure of finite-dimensional quantum theory is derived, in a conspicuously easy way, from a few simple postulates concerning abstract probabilistic models (each defined by a set of basic measurements and a convex set of states). The key assumption is that each system A can be paired with an isomorphic conjugate system, A¯, by means of a non-signaling bipartite state ηA perfectly and uniformly correlating each basic measurement on A with its counterpart on A¯. In the case of a quantum-mechanical system associated with a complex Hilbert space H, the conjugate system is that associated with the conjugate Hilbert space H, and ηA corresponds to the standard maximally entangled EPR state on H⊗H¯. A second ingredient is the notion of a reversible filter, that is, a probabilistically reversible process that independently attenuates the sensitivity of detectors associated with a measurement. In addition to offering more flexibility than most existing reconstructions of finite-dimensional quantum theory, the approach taken here has the advantage of not relying on any form of the ``no restriction" hypothesis. That is, it is not assumed that arbitrary effects are physically measurable, nor that arbitrary families of physically measurable effects summing to the unit effect, represent physically accessible observables. (An appendix shows how a version of Hardy's ``subpace axiom" can replace several assumptions native to this paper, although at the cost of disallowing superselection rules.)

Entanglement

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Richard Healey
Keyword(s):  
Quantum Theory ◽  
Quantum State ◽  
Physical Condition ◽  
Physical System ◽  
Polarization State ◽  
Quantum Systems ◽  
Ghz State ◽  
Mathematical Representation ◽  
Entangled State ◽  
Physical Relation

Often a pair of quantum systems may be represented mathematically (by a vector) in a way each system alone cannot: the mathematical representation of the pair is said to be non-separable: Schrödinger called this feature of quantum theory entanglement. It would reflect a physical relation between a pair of systems only if a system’s mathematical representation were to describe its physical condition. Einstein and colleagues used an entangled state to argue that its quantum state does not completely describe the physical condition of a system to which it is assigned. A single physical system may be assigned a non-separable quantum state, as may a large number of systems, including electrons, photons, and ions. The GHZ state is an example of an entangled polarization state that may be assigned to three photons.

Functional Quantum Theory of Free Relativistic Fermi Fields

1970 ◽  
Vol 25 (5) ◽  
pp. 575-586
Author(s):  
H. Stumpf
Keyword(s):  
Hilbert Space ◽  
Quantum Theory ◽  
Physical Interpretation ◽  
Functional Equations ◽  
Dirac Field ◽  
Functional Hilbert Space ◽  
Free Fermi ◽  
Special Case ◽  
Relativistic Fermi

Functional quantum theory of free Fermi fields is treated for the special case of a free Dirac field. All other cases run on the same pattern. Starting with the Schwinger functionals of the free Dirac field, functional equations and corresponding many particle functionals can be derived. To establish a functional quantum theory, a physical interpretation of the functionals is required. It is provided by a mapping of the physical Hilbert space into an appropriate functional Hilbert space, which is introduced here. Mathematical details, especially the problems connected with anticommuting functional sources are treated in the appendices.

scholarly journals Traces of localisation operators with two admissible wavelets

2003 ◽  
Vol 45 (1) ◽  
pp. 17-25 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. W. Wong ◽  
Zhaohui Zhang
Keyword(s):  
Hilbert Space ◽  
Complex Hilbert Space ◽  
Resolution Of The Identity

AbstractThe resolution of the identity formula for a localisation operator with two admissible wavelets on a separable and complex Hilbert space is given and the traces of these operators are computed.

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