scholarly journals Development of a balloon-borne instrument for CO<sub>2</sub> vertical profile observations in the troposphere

2019 ◽  
Vol 12 (10) ◽  
pp. 5639-5653
Author(s):  
Mai Ouchi ◽  
Yutaka Matsumi ◽  
Tomoki Nakayama ◽  
Kensaku Shimizu ◽  
Takehiko Sawada ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Vertical Profile ◽  
Field Experiments ◽  
Co2 Concentration ◽  
Observation System ◽  
Vertical Profiles ◽  
Commercial Aircraft ◽  
Observation Network ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Carbon Dioxide Co2 ◽  
Aircraft Data

Abstract. A novel, practical observation system for measuring tropospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations using a non-dispersive infrared analyzer carried by a small helium-filled balloon (CO2 sonde) has been developed for the first time. Vertical profiles of atmospheric CO2 can be measured with a 240–400 m altitude resolution through regular onboard calibrations using two different CO2 standard gases. The standard deviations (1σ) of the measured mole fractions in the laboratory experiments using a vacuum chamber at a temperature of 298 K were approximately 0.6 ppm at 1010 hPa and 1.2 ppm at 250 hPa. Two CO2 vertical profile data obtained using the CO2 sondes, which were launched on 31 January and 3 February 2011 at Moriya, were compared with the chartered aircraft data on the same days and the commercial aircraft data obtained by the Comprehensive Observation Network for TRace gases by Airliner (COTRAIL) program on the same day (31 January) and 1 d before (2 February). The difference between the CO2 sonde data and these four sets of in situ aircraft data (over the range of each balloon altitude ±100 m) up to the altitude of 7 km was 0.6±1.2 ppm (average ±1σ). In field experiments, the CO2 sonde detected an increase in CO2 concentration in an urban area and a decrease in a forested area near the surface. The CO2 sonde was shown to be a useful instrument for observing and monitoring the vertical profiles of CO2 concentration in the troposphere.

scholarly journals Development of a balloon-borne instrument for CO<sub>2</sub> vertical profile observations in the troposphere

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mai Ouchi ◽  
Yutaka Matsumi ◽  
Tomoki Nakayama ◽  
Kensaku Shimizu ◽  
Takehiko Sawada ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Field Experiments ◽  
Co2 Concentration ◽  
Observation System ◽  
Vertical Profiles ◽  
Mixing Ratios ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Carbon Dioxide Co2 ◽  
First Time ◽  
Aircraft Data

Abstract. A novel, practical observation system for measuring tropospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations using a non-dispersive infrared analyzer carried by a small helium-filled balloon (CO2 sonde), has been developed for the first time. Onboard calibrations, using CO2 standard gases, is possible to measure the vertical profiles of atmospheric CO2 accurately with a 240–400 m altitude resolution. The standard deviations (1σ) of the measured mixing ratios in the laboratory experiments using a vacuum chamber at a temperature of 298 K were approximately 0.6 ppm at 1010 hPa and 1.2 ppm at 250 hPa. Compared with in situ aircraft data, although the difference up to the altitude of 7 km was 0.6 ± 1.2 ppm, this bias and difference were within the precision of the CO2 sonde. In field experiments, the CO2 sonde detected an increase in CO2 concentration in an urban area and a decrease in a forested area near the surface. The CO2 sonde was shown to be a useful instrument for observing and monitoring the vertical profiles of CO2 concentration in the troposphere.

scholarly journals Spatio-Temporal Validation of AIRS CO2 Observations Using GAW, HIPPO and TCCON

2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (21) ◽  
pp. 3583
Author(s):  
Hui Yang ◽  
Gefei Feng ◽  
Ru Xiang ◽  
Yunjing Xu ◽  
Yong Qin ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Co2 Concentration ◽  
Satellite Observations ◽  
Total Carbon ◽  
Near Surface ◽  
Temporal Validation ◽  
Satellite Sensors ◽  
Spatio Temporal ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Carbon Dioxide Co2

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a significant atmospheric greenhouse gas and its concentrations can be observed by in situ surface stations, aircraft flights and satellite sensors. This paper investigated the ability of the CO2 satellite observations to monitor, analyze and predict the horizontal and vertical distribution of atmospheric CO2 concentration at global scales. CO2 observations retrieved by an Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) were inter-compared with the Global Atmosphere Watch Program (GAW) and HIAPER Pole-to-Pole Observations (HIPPOs), with reference to the measurements obtained using high-resolution ground-based Fourier Transform Spectrometers (FTS) in the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) from near-surface level to the mid-to-high troposphere. After vertically integrating the AIRS-retrieved values with the column averaging kernels of TCCON measurements, the AIRS observations are spatio-temporally compared with HIPPO-integrated profiles in the mid-to-high troposphere. Five selected GAW stations are used for comparisons with TCCON sites near the surface of the Earth. The results of AIRS, TCCON (5–6 km), GAW and TCCON (1 km) CO2 measurements from 2007 to 2013 are compared, analyzed and discussed at their respective altitudes. The outcomes indicate that the difference of about 3.0 ppmv between AIRS and GAW or other highly accurate in situ surface measurements is mainly due to the different vertical altitudes, rather than the errors in the AIRS. The study reported here also explores the potential of AIRS satellite observations for analyzing the spatial distribution and seasonal variation of CO2 concentration at global scales.

scholarly journals Determination of Dissolved CO2 Concentration in Culture Media: Evaluation of pH Value and Mathematical Data

Processes ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 8 (11) ◽  
pp. 1373
Author(s):  
Amir Izzuddin Adnan ◽  
Mei Yin Ong ◽  
Saifuddin Nomanbhay ◽  
Pau Loke Show
Keyword(s):  
Carbon Dioxide ◽  
Ph Value ◽  
Culture Media ◽  
Co2 Concentration ◽  
Co2 Solubility ◽  
Greenhouse Gasses ◽  
Dipotassium Phosphate ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Carbon Dioxide Co2

Carbon dioxide is the most influential gas in greenhouse gasses and its amount in the atmosphere reached 412 µmol/mol in August 2020, which increased rapidly, by 48%, from preindustrial levels. A brand-new chemical industry, namely organic chemistry and catalysis science, must be developed with carbon dioxide (CO2) as the source of carbon. Nowadays, many techniques are available for controlling and removing carbon dioxide in different chemical processes. Since the utilization of CO2 as feedstock for a chemical commodity is of relevance today, this study will focus on how to increase CO2 solubility in culture media used for growing microbes. In this work, the CO2 solubility in a different medium was investigated. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and monoethanolamine (MEA) were added to the culture media (3.0 g/L dipotassium phosphate (K2HPO4), 0.2 g/L magnesium chloride (MgCl2), 0.2 g/L calcium chloride (CaCl2), and 1.0 g/L sodium chloride (NaCl)) for growing microbes in order to observe the difference in CO2 solubility. Factors of temperature and pressure were also studied. The determination of CO2 concentration in the solution was measured by gas analyzer. The result obtained from optimization revealed a maximum CO2 concentration of 19.029 mol/L in the culture media with MEA, at a pressure of 136.728 kPa, operating at 20.483 °C.

scholarly journals Validation of SMILES HCl profiles over a wide range from the stratosphere to the lower thermosphere

2020 ◽  
Vol 13 (12) ◽  
pp. 6837-6852
Author(s):  
Seidai Nara ◽  
Tomohiro O. Sato ◽  
Takayoshi Yamada ◽  
Tamaki Fujinawa ◽  
Kota Kuribayashi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Error Analysis ◽  
Atmospheric Chemistry ◽  
Vertical Profile ◽  
Climate Model ◽  
Lower Thermosphere ◽  
Atmospheric Temperature ◽  
Vertical Profiles ◽  
Theoretical Error ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
The Difference

Abstract. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) is the most abundant (more than 95 %) among inorganic chlorine compounds Cly in the upper stratosphere. The HCl molecule is observed to obtain long-term quantitative estimations of the total budget of the stratospheric chlorine compounds. In this study, we provided HCl vertical profiles at altitudes of 16–100 km using the Superconducting Submillimeter-Wave Limb-Emission Sounder (SMILES) from space. The HCl vertical profile from the upper troposphere to the lower thermosphere is reported for the first time from SMILES observations; the data quality is quantified by comparison with other measurements and via theoretical error analysis. We used the SMILES level-2 research product version 3.0.0. The period of the SMILES HCl observation was from 12 October 2009 to 21 April 2010, and the latitude coverage was 40∘ S–65∘ N. The average HCl vertical profile showed an increase with altitude up to the stratopause (∼ 45 km), approximately constant values between the stratopause and the upper mesosphere (∼ 80 km), and a decrease from the mesopause to the lower thermosphere (∼ 100 km). This behavior was observed in all latitude regions and reproduced by the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model in the specified dynamics configuration (SD-WACCM). We compared the SMILES HCl vertical profiles in the stratosphere and lower mesosphere with HCl profiles from Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) on the Aura satellite, as well as from the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment Fourier Transform Spectrometer (ACE-FTS) on SCISAT and the TErahertz and submillimeter LImb Sounder (TELIS) (balloon borne). The TELIS observations were performed using the superconductive limb emission technique, as used by SMILES. The globally averaged vertical HCl profiles of SMILES agreed well with those of MLS and ACE-FTS within 0.25 and 0.2 ppbv between 20 and 40 km (within 10 % between 30 and 40 km; there is a larger discrepancy below 30 km), respectively. The SMILES HCl concentration was smaller than those of MLS and ACE-FTS as the altitude increased from 40 km, and the difference was approximately 0.4–0.5 ppbv (12 %–15 %) at 50–60 km. The difference between SMILES and TELIS HCl observations was about 0.3 ppbv in the polar winter region between 20 and 34 km, except near 26 km. SMILES HCl error sources that may cause discrepancies with the other observations are investigated by a theoretical error analysis. We calculated errors caused by the uncertainties of spectroscopic parameters, instrument functions, and atmospheric temperature profiles. The Jacobian for the temperature explains the negative bias of the SMILES HCl concentrations at 50–60 km.

Dissolution of CO2 From CO2 Drops in Simulating Experiments of CO2 Ocean Storage

2004 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yasuharu Nakajima ◽  
Hideyuki Shirota ◽  
Ryuji Kojima ◽  
Kenji Yamane ◽  
Izuo Aya ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Deep Sea ◽  
Co2 Concentration ◽  
The Other ◽  
Temperature Dependency ◽  
Ph Change ◽  
Measuring Point ◽  
Hydrate Film ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Carbon Dioxide Co2 ◽  
Two Temperature

The dissolution of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) from CO2 drops covered with CO2 hydrate films under the conditions simulating the deep-sea environment was investigated with a large high-pressure tank. The lowering of pH due to CO2 dissolution was measured for two temperature regions. In the same temperature region, pH lowering at higher position above the bottom of the tank was much smaller than that at lower position. It implies that while the dissolved CO2 is diffused through water in the tank, the difference in CO2 concentration occurs between both measuring points. On the other hand, pH lowering in the lower temperatures was smaller than that in the higher temperatures at the same measuring point. The difference in pH change between both temperature regions agreed with the temperature dependency in the solubility of CO2 hydrate and the dissolution rate of a CO2 droplet with a CO2 hydrate film.

scholarly journals Validation of GOSAT and OCO-2 against In Situ Aircraft Measurements and Comparison with CarbonTracker and GEOS-Chem over Qinhuangdao, China

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (5) ◽  
pp. 899
Author(s):  
Farhan Mustafa ◽  
Huijuan Wang ◽  
Lingbing Bu ◽  
Qin Wang ◽  
Muhammad Shahzaman ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Vertical Structure ◽  
Co2 Concentration ◽  
In Situ Measurements ◽  
Vertical Profiles ◽  
Aircraft Measurements ◽  
Research Aircraft ◽  
Carbon Dioxide Co2 ◽  
Air Column ◽  
Good Agreement

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important greenhouse gas and several satellites have been launched to monitor the atmospheric CO2 at regional and global scales. Evaluation of the measurements obtained from these satellites against accurate and precise instruments is crucial. In this work, aircraft measurements of CO2 were carried out over Qinhuangdao, China (39.9354°N, 119.6005°E), on 14, 16, and 19 March 2019 to validate the Greenhous gases Observing SATellite (GOSAT) and the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 (OCO-2) CO2 retrievals. The airborne in situ instruments were mounted on a research aircraft and the measurements were carried out between the altitudes of ~0.5 and 8.0 km to obtain the vertical profiles of CO2. The profiles captured a decrease in CO2 concentration from the surface to maximum altitude. Moreover, the vertical profiles from GEOS-Chem and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) CarbonTracker were also compared with in situ and satellite datasets. The satellite and the model datasets captured the vertical structure of CO2 when compared with in situ measurements, which showed good agreement among the datasets. The dry-air column-averaged CO2 mole fractions (XCO2) retrieved from OCO-2 and GOSAT showed biases of 1.33 ppm (0.32%) and −1.70 ppm (−0.41%), respectively, relative to the XCO2 derived from in situ measurements.

PENGARUH KELIMPAHAN SEL MIKROALGAE AIR TAWAR (Chlorella sp.) TERHADAP PENAMBATAN KARBONDIOKSIDA = Effect of Microalgae Cell Density (Chlorella sp) on Absorption of Carbondioxide

2016 ◽  
Vol 14 (1) ◽  
pp. 1
Author(s):  
Nida Sopiah ◽  
Adi Mulyanto ◽  
Sindi Sehabudin
Keyword(s):  
Carbon Dioxide ◽  
Energy Source ◽  
Carbon Source ◽  
Co2 Concentration ◽  
Biomass Density ◽  
Co2 Gas ◽  
Chlorella Sp ◽  
Microalgae Biomass ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Carbon Dioxide Co2

Chlorella sp. is a single-cell microalgae that lives in aquatic environment. It grows and developsby making use of sunlight as an energy source and carbon dioxide (CO2) as carbon source. Chlorella sp. can be utilized as biological agents in reducing CO2 gas emissions in the atmosphere. The purpose of this experiment was to assess the influence of microalgae’sincreasing density to its capability in absorbing CO2.The air which contains CO2 was injected to aclosed photobioreactor intermittently by an aerator. The flow rate applied was 2.5 liters/minute.Research result identified that amount of CO2 sequestered by Chlorella sp. in photobioreactor system was equal with increasing of microalgae biomass density. Sequestration of CO2 inphotobioreactor significantly increased at the afternoon because occurring of photosynthesis process. This phenomenon was identified by difference of CO2 concentration during morning andafternoon toward photobioreactor number 1, 2, and 3. The difference was in between 0.15 % -2.40 %; 0.05 % - 2.30 %; and 0.51 % - 2.74 % respectively. Capability of cell on sequestering ofCO2 increased amounting of 102 – 167.2 % per day.Keywords: Chlorella sp, carbondioxide, sequestration, microalgae abundanceAbstrak Chlorella sp. merupakan mikroalgae bersel tunggal yang hidup di lingkungan perairan, tumbuh dan berkembang dengan memanfaatkan sinar matahari sebagai sumber energi dankarbondioksida sebagai sumber karbon. Chlorella sp. dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai agensia hayati dalam menurunkan emisi gas CO2 di atmosfer. Tujuan dari penelitian adalah untuk mengkajipengaruh kelimpahan Chlorella sp. terhadap penambatan karbon dioksida dalam mereduksi emisi karbondioksida. Pada penelitian ini, gas CO2 diinjeksikan ke dalam fotobioreaktor sistemtertutup dengan sistem intermiten dan supply oksigen menggunakan aerator dengan debit sebesar 2,5 liter/menit. Hasil Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa jumlah karbondioksida yangditambat oleh Chlorella sp. dalam sistem fotobioreaktor setara dengan penambahan kelimpahan biomassa mikroalgae. Panambatan karbondioksida pada fotobioreaktor mengalami peningkatansangat signifikan pada siang hari karena adanya proses fotosintesis yang ditunjukkan dengan adanya selisih konsentrasi CO2 saat pagi dan sore hari pada masing-masing fotobioreaktor 1, 2 dan 3 berkisar antara 0,15 % - 2,40 %; 0,05 % - 2,30 % dan 0,51 % - 2,74 %. Sedangkanefisiensi kemampuan penambatan CO2 oleh setiap sel Chlorella sp. selama 21 hari dibandingkan terhadap inokulasi hari pertama menunjukkan peningkatan yang signifikan dengan nilai efisiensimasing-masing 67,2 %; 144,6 %; 222,6 %; 308,8 %; 364,2 %; 416,1 %; 447,0 %; 470,8 %; 505,9%; 555,0 %; 571,4 %; 581,0 %; 587,7 %; 612,6 %; 626,6 %; 656,6 %; 684,7 %; 715,3 %; 733,9%; dan pada hari ke-21 meningkat sebesar 750,5 %. Dan kemampuan setiap sel dalam menambat CO2 setiap hari mampu meningkatkan sebesar 102 % -167,2 %. Kata Kunci : Chlorella sp., karbondioksida, penambatan, kelimpahan mikroalga

Simulation experiments for studying an optimal carbon dioxide monitoring network for Osaka, Japan

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Takayuki Hayashida ◽  
Tomohiro Oda ◽  
Takashi Machimura ◽  
Takanori Matsui ◽  
Akihiko Kuze ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Carbon Dioxide ◽  
Co2 Emissions ◽  
Monitoring Network ◽  
Co2 Concentration ◽  
Second Phase ◽  
Emission Model ◽  
Geospatial Information ◽  
Observation Network ◽  
Emission Changes ◽  
Carbon Dioxide Co2

&lt;p&gt;We prototype an Observing System Simulation Experiment (OSSE) system for studying an optimal carbon dioxide (CO2) monitoring network in Osaka city, one of the populated cities in Japan (population: 8.8 million).&amp;#160; In the first phase of our project, we built a multi-resolution, spatially-explicit fossil fuel CO2 emissions model to better quantify CO2 emissions with an updated information and detailed geospatial information. &amp;#160;In the second phase, we coupled the emission model to the WRF Chem model, and developed an OSSE capability to study an optimal CO2 observation network for Osaka. &amp;#160;After completing an evaluation of the meteorological fields and emission fields, we have started simulating atmospheric CO2 concentration using possible emission scenarios and examined the emission change detectability by an imaginary ground-based observation networks.&amp;#160; We started from existing observational sites for air quality monitoring sites and the selected suitable sites based on how much useful signals can be obtained.&amp;#160; In order to fully examine the detectability of CO2 emission changes in the presence of potential strong local and inflow biospheric CO2 contributions, we included biospheric fluxes calculated from the BEAMS model. &amp;#160;We have also attempted to calculate the cost for establishing the observational sites.&amp;#160; Our ultimate goal is to help decision makers to design an effective observation network given their emission reduction target as well as the budget constrain.&lt;/p&gt;

scholarly journals Validation of the vertical profiles of HCl over the wide range of the stratosphere to the lower thermosphere measured by SMILES

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Seidai Nara ◽  
Tomohiro O. Sato ◽  
Takayoshi Yamada ◽  
Tamaki Fujinawa ◽  
Kota Kuribayashi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Error Analysis ◽  
Vertical Profile ◽  
Lower Thermosphere ◽  
Atmospheric Temperature ◽  
Vertical Profiles ◽  
Theoretical Error ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Hcl Concentration ◽  
First Time

Abstract. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) is the most abundant (more than 95 %) among inorganic chlorine compounds Cly in the stratosphere. The HCl molecule has been observed to obtain long-term quantitative estimations of total budget of the stratospheric anthropogenic chlorine compounds. In this study, we provided HCl vertical profiles at altitudes of 16–100 km using the superconducting submillimeter-wave limb-emission sounder (SMILES) from space. We used the SMILES Level-2 research product version 3.0.0. The period of the SMILES HCl observation was from October 12, 2009 to April 21, 2010, and the latitude coverage was 40S–65N. The average HCl vertical profile showed an increase with altitude up to the stratopause (~ 45 km), approximately constant values between the stratopause and the upper mesosphere (~ 80 km), and a decrease from the mesopause to the lower thermosphere (~ 100 km). This behavior was observed in the all latitude regions, and reproduced by the SD-WACCM model. We compared the SMILES HCl vertical profiles in the stratosphere and lower mesosphere with HCl profiles from MLS on the Aura satellite, as well as from ACE-FTS on SCISAT and from TELIS (balloon-borne). The TELIS observations were performed using the superconductive limb emission technique, as used by SMILES. The globally averaged vertical HCl profiles of SMILES well agreed with those of MLS and ACE-FTS within 0.25 and 0.2 ppbv between 20 and 40 km, respectively. The SMILES HCl concentration was smaller than those of MLS and ACE/FTS as the altitude increased from 40 km, and the difference was approximately 0.4–0.5 ppbv at 50–60 km. The difference between SMILES and TELIS HCl observations was about 0.3 ppbv in the polar winter region between 20 and 34 km, except near 26 km. SMILES HCl error sources that may cause discrepancies with the other observations are investigated by a theoretical error analysis. We calculated errors caused by the uncertainties of spectroscopic parameters, instrument functions, and atmospheric temperature profiles. The jacobian for the temperature explains the negative bias of the SMILES HCl concentration at 50–60 km. The HCl vertical profile from the middle troposphere to the lower thermosphere is reported for the first time from SMILES observations; the data quality is quantified by comparisons with other measurements and via theoretical error analysis.

scholarly journals Tropospheric mercury vertical profiles between 500 and 10 000 m in central Europe

2016 ◽  
Vol 16 (6) ◽  
pp. 4135-4146 ◽  
Author(s):  
Andreas Weigelt ◽  
Ralf Ebinghaus ◽  
Nicola Pirrone ◽  
Johannes Bieser ◽  
Jan Bödewadt ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Boundary Layer ◽  
Vertical Distribution ◽  
Vertical Profile ◽  
Mixed Boundary ◽  
Atmospheric Mercury ◽  
Observation System ◽  
Vertical Profiles ◽  
Free Troposphere ◽  
Airborne Measurements ◽  
The Vertical Distribution

Abstract. The knowledge of the vertical distribution of atmospheric mercury (Hg) plays an important role in determining the transport and cycling of mercury. However, measurements of the vertical distribution are rare, because airborne measurements are expensive and labour intensive. Consequently, only a few vertical Hg profile measurements have been reported since the 1970s. Besides the Civil Aircraft for the Regular Investigation of the atmosphere Based on an Instrument Container (CARIBIC) observations, the latest vertical profile over Europe was measured in 1996. Within the Global Mercury Observation System (GMOS) project, four vertical profiles were taken on board research aircraft (CASA-212) in August 2013 in background air over different locations in Slovenia and Germany. Each vertical profile consists of at least seven 5 min horizontal flight sections from 500 m above ground to 3000 m a.s.l. Gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) and total gaseous mercury (TGM) were measured with Tekran 2537X and Tekran 2537B analysers. In addition to the mercury measurements, SO2, CO, O3, NO, and NO2, basic meteorological parameters (pressure, temperature, relative humidity) have been measured. Additional ground-based mercury measurements at the GMOS master site in Waldhof, Germany and measurements onboard the CARIBIC passenger aircraft were used to extend the profile to the ground and upper troposphere respectively. No vertical gradient was found inside the well-mixed boundary layer (variation of less than 0.1 ng m−3) at different sites, with GEM varying from location to location between 1.4 and 1.6 ng m−3 (standard temperature and pressure, STP: T  =  273.15 K, p  =  1013.25 hPa). At all locations GEM dropped to 1.3 ng m−3 (STP) when entering the free troposphere and remained constant at higher altitudes. The combination of the vertical profile, measured on 21 August 2013 over Leipzig, Germany, with the CARIBIC measurements during ascent and descent to Frankfurt Airport, Germany, taken at approximately the same time, provide a unique central European vertical profile from inside the boundary layer (550 m a.s.l) to the upper free troposphere (10 500 m a.s.l.) and show a fairly constant free-tropospheric TGM concentration of 1.3 ng m−3 (STP).

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