Thermal evolution of terrestrial planets with 2D and 3D geometries

<p>In mantle convection studies, two-dimensional geometry calculations are predominantly used, due to their reduced computational costs when compared to full 3-D spherical shell models.  Although various 3-D grid formulations [e.g. 1, 2] have been employed in studies using complex scenarios of thermal evolution [e.g., 3, 4], simulations with these geometries remain highly expensive in terms of computational power and thus 2-D geometries are still preferred in most of the exploratory studies involving broader ranges of parameters. However, these 2-D geometries still present drawbacks for modeling thermal convection. Although scaling and approximations can be applied to better match the average quantities obtained with 3D models [5], in particular, the convection pattern that in turn is critical to estimate melt production and distribution during the thermal evolution is difficult to reproduce with a 2D cylindrical geometry. In this scope, another 2D geometry called “spherical annulus” has been proposed by Hernlund and Tackley, 2008 [6]. Although steady state comparison between 2D cylindrical, spherical annulus and 3D geometry exist [6], so far no systematic study of the effects of these geometries in a thermal evolution scenario is available. </p><p>In this study we implemented a 2-D spherical annulus geometry in the mantle convection code GAIA [7] and used it along 2-D cylindrical and 3-D geometries to model the thermal evolution of 3 terrestrial bodies, respectively Mercury, the Moon and Mars. </p><p>First, we have performed steady state calculations in various geometries and compared the results obtained with GAIA with results from other mantle convection codes [6,8,9]. For this comparison we used several scenarios with increasing complexity in the Boussinesq approximation (BA).</p><p>In a second step we run thermal evolution simulations for Mars, Mercury, and the Moon using GAIA with 2D scaled cylinder, spherical annulus and 3D spherical shell geometries.In this case we considered the extended Boussinesq approximation (EBA), an Arrhenius law for the viscosity, a variable thermal conductivity between the crust and the mantle, while taking into account the heat source decay and the cooling of the core, as appropriate for modeling the thermal evolution. A detailed comparison between all geometries and planets will be presented focussing on the convection pattern and melt production. In particular, we aim to determine which 2D geometry reproduces most accurately the results obtained in a 3D spherical shell model. </p><p><strong>Aknowledgments</strong>: The authors gratefully acknowledges the financial support and endorsement from the DLR Management Board Young Research Group Leader Program and the Executive Board Member for Space Research and Technology.</p><p><strong>References</strong>: [1] Kageyama and Sato, G3, 2004; [2] Hüttig and Stemmer, G3, 2008;  [3] Crameri & Tackley, Progress Planet. Sci., 2016; [4] Plesa et al., GRL (2018); [5] Van Keken, PEPI, 2001; [6] Hernlund and Tackley, PEPI, 2008; [7] Hüttig et al, PEPI 2013; [8] Kronbichler et al., GJI, 2012; [9]  Noack et al., INFOCOMP 2015.</p>

Relativistic electron acceleration at Saturn and Jupiter by global scale electric fields

<p>Electrons in Saturn's radiation belts are distributed along discrete energy bands, a feature often attributed to the energisation of charged particles following their rapid injection towards a planet's inner magnetosphere. However, the mechanism that could deliver electrons deep into Saturn's radiation belts remains elusive, as for instance, the efficiency of magnetospheric interchange injections drops rapidly for electrons above 100 keV and at low L-shells. Using Cassini measurements and simulations we demonstrate that the banding derives from slow radial plasma flows associated to a persistent convection pattern in Saturn's magnetosphere (noon to midnight electric field), making the need for rapid injections obsolete. This transport mode impacts electron acceleration throughout most the planet's radiation belts and at quasi and fully relativistic energies, suggesting that this global scale electric field is ultimately responsible for the bulk of the highest energy electrons near the planet. We also present evidence from Galileo and Juno that the influence of Jupiter's inner magnetospheric convection pattern on its radiation belts is fundamentally similar to Saturn's but affects its higher energy ultra-relativistic electrons. The comparison of the two radiation belts indicates there is an energy range above which there is a transition from interchange to global scale electric field driven electron acceleration. This transiroty energy range can be scaled by the two planets' magnetic moment and strength of corotation, allowing us to study these two systems in complement.</p>

Fan-shaped aurora as seen from Japan during a great magnetic storm on February 11, 1958

During a great magnetic storm on Feb 11, 1958, a fan-shaped aurora was photographed at Memambetsu, Hokkaido, Japan – the first and oldest photograph record of auroras observed in Japan, accompanied by many hand-made drawings, thus, portraying a rare opportunity of coexistence between photograph images and hand-made drawings. In fact, the same portrayal reminds us of the great red aurora with fan-shaped white pillars observed during the 1872 and 1770 great magnetic storms. The hand-made sketches, photographs, and the spectral data revealed that the white pillars and red glow of the fan-shaped aurora were dominated by auroral green and red lines, respectively. From the analysis of newly digitized microfilm data and hand-made drawings, we found that the fan-shaped aurora appeared during the peak activity of magnetic storm and moved westward at 0.4 km/s at 400-km altitude at 38°–40° magnetic latitudes, which is consistent with the enhanced convection pattern in the middle latitude at storm time. Such a fan-shaped aurora can fundamentally characterize the middle-latitude evening-to-midnight auroras during great magnetic storms, which show the most destabilized transient appearance of the inner magnetosphere.

Formation Mechanisms of the Pacific–North American Teleconnection with and without Its Canonical Tropical Convection Pattern

The mechanisms that drive the Pacific–North American (PNA) teleconnection pattern with and without its canonical tropical convection pattern are investigated with daily ERA-Interim and NOAA OLR data (the former pattern is referred to as the convective PNA, and the latter pattern is referred to as the nonconvective PNA). Both the convective and nonconvective positive PNA are found to be preceded by wave activity fluxes associated with a Eurasian wave train. These wave activity fluxes enter the central subtropical Pacific, a location that is favorable for barotropic wave amplification, just prior to the rapid growth of the PNA. The wave activity fluxes are stronger for the positive nonconvective PNA, suggesting that barotropic amplification plays a greater role in its development. The negative convective PNA is also preceded by a Eurasian wave train, whereas the negative nonconvective PNA grows from the North Pacific contribution to a circumglobal teleconnection pattern. Driving by high-frequency eddy vorticity fluxes is largest for the negative convective PNA, indicating that a positive feedback may be playing a more dominant role in its development. The lifetimes of convective PNA events are found to be longer than those of nonconvective PNA events, with the former (latter) persisting for about three (two) weeks. Furthermore, the frequency of the positive (negative) convective PNA is about 40% (60%) greater than that of the positive (negative) nonconvective PNA.