Integrating Biophysical, Socio-Economic and Governance Principles Into Marine Reserve Design and Management in Mexico: From Theory to Practice

Marine conservation design and fisheries management are increasingly integrating biophysical, socio-economic and governance considerations. Integrative approaches are adopted to achieve more effective, equitable, inclusive, and robust marine policies and practices. This paper describes a participatory process to co-produce biophysical, socio-economic, and governance principles to guide the design and management of marine reserves in three regions of Mexico: the Pacific region of the Baja California Peninsula, the Gulf of California, and the Mexican Caribbean. The process of co-producing the principles included convening a coordination team, reviewing the science, convening multi-stakeholder workshops, developing and communicating the principles with key practitioners and policy makers, and supporting uptake and application to policy and practice. Biophysical principles were related to: habitat representation and risk spreading; protecting critical, special and unique areas; incorporating connectivity; allowing time for recovery; adapting to changes in climate and ocean chemistry; and considering threats and opportunities. Socio-economic principles focused on: integrating the social context, local aspirations, and human-environment interactions; considering economic and non-economic uses, promoting an equitable distribution of costs and benefits, and respecting and maintaining cultural identity and diversity. Governance principles prioritized establishing and ensuring legitimacy and institutional continuity; implementing collaborative and adaptive management; and, promoting effective management. The paper also examines early efforts to implement the principles, next steps to promote further uptake and application in Mexico, and lessons learned from the process. Thus it provides insights into a practical process and a set of principles that are valuable to inform marine conservation and fisheries management processes elsewhere.

Coral Reef Viruses in Kane'ohe Bay, Hawai'i: Abundance, Diversity & Environmental Drivers

<p>Viruses are a ubiquitous component of coral reef ecosystems, with several viral types, from at least seven prokaryotic and 20 eukaryotic virus families currently characterised from the surface mucopolysaccharide layer (SML), coral tissue and the water column. However, little is known about the ecology and function of these viruses. For example, what are the environmental drivers of viral abundance and diversity on coral reefs? In this study, the abundance and distribution of virus-like particles (VLPs) associated with the SML and reef water of the coral Montipora capitata were determined using epifluorescence microscopy, while transmission electron microscopy was employed to determine the morphological diversity of VLPs. Sampling was conducted across the Coconut Island Marine Reserve (CIMR) reef system, Kane’ohe Bay, O’ahu, Hawai’i. Viral abundance was correlated with select environmental drivers and prokaryote abundance, while non-metric multidimensional scaling was used to determine the key environmental drivers of the viral community assemblage. The water column contained high concentrations of VLPs (5.98 × 107 ml-1) and prokaryotes (3.11 × 106 ml-1), consistent with the considerable anthropogenic impacts at this location. In comparison, the SML contained lower concentrations of VLPs (2.61 × 107 ml-1) and prokaryotes (2.08 × 106 ml-1); of note, the densities of viruses and prokaryotes in the SML were strongly coupled while those in the reef water were not. VLP density in the water column varied spatially across the reef, with the most sheltered site and the only one not situated on the reef crest having a greater VLP density than the other sites. Temporal variations in the density of microbes (i.e. viruses and prokaryotes) in the reef water were pronounced, while in the SML microbial densities remained constant. However, no specific environmental drivers of this variability could be identified. In contrast, temperature and water quality were correlated with shifts in the morphological diversity of VLPs across the reef. Small (< 50 nm) polyhedral/spherical VLPs were dominant, and were positively correlated to chlorophyll-a concentration when in the SML. In this same habitat, Fuselloviridae-like VLPs, filamentous VLPs and bead-shaped VLPs were positively correlated to temperature. In the reef water a different pattern was apparent: large (> 100 nm) Podoviridae-like VLPs and elongate Myoviridae-like VLPs, as well as lemon-shaped VLPs of both size classes showed positive associations with turbidity, while large filamentous VLPs, Geminiviridae-like VLPs and rod-shaped VLPs were positively associated with temperature. These results demonstrate that the viral community of Coconut Island’s reef is highly diverse, and subject to spatial and temporal change, especially in the water column. However, while the environmental drivers of viral diversity were partly elucidated, we are still a long way from understanding the drivers of viral abundance. More detailed study, both spatially and temporally, of the CIMR environment is required, as is comprehensive molecular analysis of the viral community of Kane’ohe Bay. Only then can we begin to understand the importance of viruses to the health and function of this, and other reef sites.</p>

Examining the ecological complexities of blackfoot paua demography and habitat requirements in the scope of marine reserve protection

<p>A critical question for ecologists and fisheries managers is what drives the demographic processes that dictate the abundance and size structure of ecologically and commercially important species. Marine Reserves (MRs) provide an opportunity to examine species in the absence of human disturbance (i.e. no fishing) and to investigate how habitat type, quantity and condition contribute to yield large individuals and dense aggregations that are typical of a more natural state. However, an improved understanding of the efficacy of marine reserves requires a robust examination of habitats inside and outside reserves to distinguish any reserve effect from a potential confounding habitat effect. Abalone are a valuable nearshore fishery in many parts of the world and many stocks have been overexploited to the point of collapse. Countries striving to rebuild their abalone stocks are utilizing MRs to support viable populations and focusing on habitat requirements that produce large aggregations and individuals. The abalone commonly referred to as the blackfoot paua (Haliotis iris) is a culturally and ecologically important New Zealand (NZ) species and is the focus of customary, recreational and commercial fisheries. However, the demography and growth rates of paua populations are highly variable, with pockets of “stunted” populations occurring throughout NZ. Density-dependent processes, differential juvenile success, variable habitat quality and fishing pressure have all been suggested to influence the fitness of individuals and the demography of paua populations. My research utilizes MRs to control for fishing activity and thereby to investigate ecological patterns and the effects of habitat on paua abundance and size variability. The main objectives of this thesis were to quantify the response of paua to MR status, distinguish habitat effect from a reserve effect and understand the contribution of habitat variables on demography and growth. Research was conducted within and surrounding five MRs in central NZ. The habitats in and outside MRs were not significantly different in physical and biogenic characteristics, but paua occurred in significantly greater densities and were significantly larger within four MRs compared with outside, illustrating that marine reserves do afford protection for paua. Paua within MRs were significantly more dense and larger in areas of relatively higher wave exposure and dense macroalgal cover. Despite protection, paua were found to be undersized or “stunted” at Long Island and Horoirangi MRs. I conducted surveys to evaluate the effect of density and the contribution of habitat variables on paua size at two spatial scales across environmental gradients. To further test the hypothesis that habitat effects growth a 12 month translocation experiment was conducted at Long Island MR. The surveys revealed that environmental gradients exist at small and large scales and explained how paua size varied along these gradients. The habitat variables which supported larger size individuals were consistent across both locations, where paua were significantly larger in areas that were exposed with high algal cover than those at sheltered areas with low algal cover. This result was further confirmed by the translocation experiment which revealed that paua translocated from a stunted environment to a normal environment grew significantly more than conspecifics placed at the stunted environment. To further explore the response of paua to protection and see if patterns were consistent across bioregions in areas with “normal” size paua I conducted research at the Taputeranga MR on the Wellington South Coast to evaluate juvenile and adult population densities and examine stage-specific habitat requirements. Juvenile paua were found in higher densities at fished sites in areas that were sheltered from wave exposure and dominated by cobbles and boulder fields. Adult paua were found in greater densities and were larger in size within the reserve than outside, which was the opposite finding to the baseline survey illustrating reserve effectiveness. Although within the reserve there were large aggregations and individual adults which may support population reproductive success, juvenile and adult population densities were not correlated. Results from this study indicate that marine reserve implementation does have an impact on adult populations but that habitat is more important for juvenile success. Although this thesis focused on paua within the scope of protection, MRs are placed in NZ to protect a suite of species. To thoroughly investigate habitats I conducted a rigorous inside-outside habitat analysis utilizing multibeam bathymetric data and video footage from drop camera surveys at Taputeranga MR. Habitat maps produced by NIWA were utilized to plan drop camera sampling locations and 278 drops were conducted across 8 sites associated with TMR. Analysis revealed that habitats within fished and reserve sites were comparable in physical and biogenic habitat quantities, although the reserve had greater topographic relief. However, when examining only a subsample of fished sites there were pronounced habitat differences between in and outside the reserve, where the western fished sites have significantly more rocky reef with greater algal cover than the reserve and eastern sites. These results illustrate the need for quantification of habitat when siting fished (control) areas and conducting inside versus outside reserve comparisons. This research has determined that MRs do afford protection for paua in central NZ. The differentiation between habitat and reserve effects that I have identified has direct relevance to current and future MRs in NZ and highlights the need for studies to examine habitat effect in MR spatial planning at a global level. Furthermore, this research highlights the importance of considering stage-specific habitat requirements when designing the spatial arrangement of MRs by protecting juvenile habitat as well as adults to increase chances of recovery. These abalone-habitat associations, showing the importance of exposure and macroalgal cover for growth, can be used to assist in management decisions within NZ such as considerations for siting management areas and potential translocations and are directly applicable to abalone conservation, management concerns and recovery efforts across the world.</p>

Coral Reef Viruses in Kane'ohe Bay, Hawai'i: Abundance, Diversity & Environmental Drivers

<p>Viruses are a ubiquitous component of coral reef ecosystems, with several viral types, from at least seven prokaryotic and 20 eukaryotic virus families currently characterised from the surface mucopolysaccharide layer (SML), coral tissue and the water column. However, little is known about the ecology and function of these viruses. For example, what are the environmental drivers of viral abundance and diversity on coral reefs? In this study, the abundance and distribution of virus-like particles (VLPs) associated with the SML and reef water of the coral Montipora capitata were determined using epifluorescence microscopy, while transmission electron microscopy was employed to determine the morphological diversity of VLPs. Sampling was conducted across the Coconut Island Marine Reserve (CIMR) reef system, Kane’ohe Bay, O’ahu, Hawai’i. Viral abundance was correlated with select environmental drivers and prokaryote abundance, while non-metric multidimensional scaling was used to determine the key environmental drivers of the viral community assemblage. The water column contained high concentrations of VLPs (5.98 × 107 ml-1) and prokaryotes (3.11 × 106 ml-1), consistent with the considerable anthropogenic impacts at this location. In comparison, the SML contained lower concentrations of VLPs (2.61 × 107 ml-1) and prokaryotes (2.08 × 106 ml-1); of note, the densities of viruses and prokaryotes in the SML were strongly coupled while those in the reef water were not. VLP density in the water column varied spatially across the reef, with the most sheltered site and the only one not situated on the reef crest having a greater VLP density than the other sites. Temporal variations in the density of microbes (i.e. viruses and prokaryotes) in the reef water were pronounced, while in the SML microbial densities remained constant. However, no specific environmental drivers of this variability could be identified. In contrast, temperature and water quality were correlated with shifts in the morphological diversity of VLPs across the reef. Small (< 50 nm) polyhedral/spherical VLPs were dominant, and were positively correlated to chlorophyll-a concentration when in the SML. In this same habitat, Fuselloviridae-like VLPs, filamentous VLPs and bead-shaped VLPs were positively correlated to temperature. In the reef water a different pattern was apparent: large (> 100 nm) Podoviridae-like VLPs and elongate Myoviridae-like VLPs, as well as lemon-shaped VLPs of both size classes showed positive associations with turbidity, while large filamentous VLPs, Geminiviridae-like VLPs and rod-shaped VLPs were positively associated with temperature. These results demonstrate that the viral community of Coconut Island’s reef is highly diverse, and subject to spatial and temporal change, especially in the water column. However, while the environmental drivers of viral diversity were partly elucidated, we are still a long way from understanding the drivers of viral abundance. More detailed study, both spatially and temporally, of the CIMR environment is required, as is comprehensive molecular analysis of the viral community of Kane’ohe Bay. Only then can we begin to understand the importance of viruses to the health and function of this, and other reef sites.</p>

Examining the ecological complexities of blackfoot paua demography and habitat requirements in the scope of marine reserve protection

<p>A critical question for ecologists and fisheries managers is what drives the demographic processes that dictate the abundance and size structure of ecologically and commercially important species. Marine Reserves (MRs) provide an opportunity to examine species in the absence of human disturbance (i.e. no fishing) and to investigate how habitat type, quantity and condition contribute to yield large individuals and dense aggregations that are typical of a more natural state. However, an improved understanding of the efficacy of marine reserves requires a robust examination of habitats inside and outside reserves to distinguish any reserve effect from a potential confounding habitat effect. Abalone are a valuable nearshore fishery in many parts of the world and many stocks have been overexploited to the point of collapse. Countries striving to rebuild their abalone stocks are utilizing MRs to support viable populations and focusing on habitat requirements that produce large aggregations and individuals. The abalone commonly referred to as the blackfoot paua (Haliotis iris) is a culturally and ecologically important New Zealand (NZ) species and is the focus of customary, recreational and commercial fisheries. However, the demography and growth rates of paua populations are highly variable, with pockets of “stunted” populations occurring throughout NZ. Density-dependent processes, differential juvenile success, variable habitat quality and fishing pressure have all been suggested to influence the fitness of individuals and the demography of paua populations. My research utilizes MRs to control for fishing activity and thereby to investigate ecological patterns and the effects of habitat on paua abundance and size variability. The main objectives of this thesis were to quantify the response of paua to MR status, distinguish habitat effect from a reserve effect and understand the contribution of habitat variables on demography and growth. Research was conducted within and surrounding five MRs in central NZ. The habitats in and outside MRs were not significantly different in physical and biogenic characteristics, but paua occurred in significantly greater densities and were significantly larger within four MRs compared with outside, illustrating that marine reserves do afford protection for paua. Paua within MRs were significantly more dense and larger in areas of relatively higher wave exposure and dense macroalgal cover. Despite protection, paua were found to be undersized or “stunted” at Long Island and Horoirangi MRs. I conducted surveys to evaluate the effect of density and the contribution of habitat variables on paua size at two spatial scales across environmental gradients. To further test the hypothesis that habitat effects growth a 12 month translocation experiment was conducted at Long Island MR. The surveys revealed that environmental gradients exist at small and large scales and explained how paua size varied along these gradients. The habitat variables which supported larger size individuals were consistent across both locations, where paua were significantly larger in areas that were exposed with high algal cover than those at sheltered areas with low algal cover. This result was further confirmed by the translocation experiment which revealed that paua translocated from a stunted environment to a normal environment grew significantly more than conspecifics placed at the stunted environment. To further explore the response of paua to protection and see if patterns were consistent across bioregions in areas with “normal” size paua I conducted research at the Taputeranga MR on the Wellington South Coast to evaluate juvenile and adult population densities and examine stage-specific habitat requirements. Juvenile paua were found in higher densities at fished sites in areas that were sheltered from wave exposure and dominated by cobbles and boulder fields. Adult paua were found in greater densities and were larger in size within the reserve than outside, which was the opposite finding to the baseline survey illustrating reserve effectiveness. Although within the reserve there were large aggregations and individual adults which may support population reproductive success, juvenile and adult population densities were not correlated. Results from this study indicate that marine reserve implementation does have an impact on adult populations but that habitat is more important for juvenile success. Although this thesis focused on paua within the scope of protection, MRs are placed in NZ to protect a suite of species. To thoroughly investigate habitats I conducted a rigorous inside-outside habitat analysis utilizing multibeam bathymetric data and video footage from drop camera surveys at Taputeranga MR. Habitat maps produced by NIWA were utilized to plan drop camera sampling locations and 278 drops were conducted across 8 sites associated with TMR. Analysis revealed that habitats within fished and reserve sites were comparable in physical and biogenic habitat quantities, although the reserve had greater topographic relief. However, when examining only a subsample of fished sites there were pronounced habitat differences between in and outside the reserve, where the western fished sites have significantly more rocky reef with greater algal cover than the reserve and eastern sites. These results illustrate the need for quantification of habitat when siting fished (control) areas and conducting inside versus outside reserve comparisons. This research has determined that MRs do afford protection for paua in central NZ. The differentiation between habitat and reserve effects that I have identified has direct relevance to current and future MRs in NZ and highlights the need for studies to examine habitat effect in MR spatial planning at a global level. Furthermore, this research highlights the importance of considering stage-specific habitat requirements when designing the spatial arrangement of MRs by protecting juvenile habitat as well as adults to increase chances of recovery. These abalone-habitat associations, showing the importance of exposure and macroalgal cover for growth, can be used to assist in management decisions within NZ such as considerations for siting management areas and potential translocations and are directly applicable to abalone conservation, management concerns and recovery efforts across the world.</p>

Coral Reef Viruses in Kane'ohe Bay, Hawai'i: Abundance, Diversity & Environmental Drivers

<p>Viruses are a ubiquitous component of coral reef ecosystems, with several viral types, from at least seven prokaryotic and 20 eukaryotic virus families currently characterised from the surface mucopolysaccharide layer (SML), coral tissue and the water column. However, little is known about the ecology and function of these viruses. For example, what are the environmental drivers of viral abundance and diversity on coral reefs? In this study, the abundance and distribution of virus-like particles (VLPs) associated with the SML and reef water of the coral Montipora capitata were determined using epifluorescence microscopy, while transmission electron microscopy was employed to determine the morphological diversity of VLPs. Sampling was conducted across the Coconut Island Marine Reserve (CIMR) reef system, Kane’ohe Bay, O’ahu, Hawai’i. Viral abundance was correlated with select environmental drivers and prokaryote abundance, while non-metric multidimensional scaling was used to determine the key environmental drivers of the viral community assemblage. The water column contained high concentrations of VLPs (5.98 × 107 ml-1) and prokaryotes (3.11 × 106 ml-1), consistent with the considerable anthropogenic impacts at this location. In comparison, the SML contained lower concentrations of VLPs (2.61 × 107 ml-1) and prokaryotes (2.08 × 106 ml-1); of note, the densities of viruses and prokaryotes in the SML were strongly coupled while those in the reef water were not. VLP density in the water column varied spatially across the reef, with the most sheltered site and the only one not situated on the reef crest having a greater VLP density than the other sites. Temporal variations in the density of microbes (i.e. viruses and prokaryotes) in the reef water were pronounced, while in the SML microbial densities remained constant. However, no specific environmental drivers of this variability could be identified. In contrast, temperature and water quality were correlated with shifts in the morphological diversity of VLPs across the reef. Small (< 50 nm) polyhedral/spherical VLPs were dominant, and were positively correlated to chlorophyll-a concentration when in the SML. In this same habitat, Fuselloviridae-like VLPs, filamentous VLPs and bead-shaped VLPs were positively correlated to temperature. In the reef water a different pattern was apparent: large (> 100 nm) Podoviridae-like VLPs and elongate Myoviridae-like VLPs, as well as lemon-shaped VLPs of both size classes showed positive associations with turbidity, while large filamentous VLPs, Geminiviridae-like VLPs and rod-shaped VLPs were positively associated with temperature. These results demonstrate that the viral community of Coconut Island’s reef is highly diverse, and subject to spatial and temporal change, especially in the water column. However, while the environmental drivers of viral diversity were partly elucidated, we are still a long way from understanding the drivers of viral abundance. More detailed study, both spatially and temporally, of the CIMR environment is required, as is comprehensive molecular analysis of the viral community of Kane’ohe Bay. Only then can we begin to understand the importance of viruses to the health and function of this, and other reef sites.</p>

Coral Reef Viruses in Kane'ohe Bay, Hawai'i: Abundance, Diversity & Environmental Drivers

<p>Viruses are a ubiquitous component of coral reef ecosystems, with several viral types, from at least seven prokaryotic and 20 eukaryotic virus families currently characterised from the surface mucopolysaccharide layer (SML), coral tissue and the water column. However, little is known about the ecology and function of these viruses. For example, what are the environmental drivers of viral abundance and diversity on coral reefs? In this study, the abundance and distribution of virus-like particles (VLPs) associated with the SML and reef water of the coral Montipora capitata were determined using epifluorescence microscopy, while transmission electron microscopy was employed to determine the morphological diversity of VLPs. Sampling was conducted across the Coconut Island Marine Reserve (CIMR) reef system, Kane’ohe Bay, O’ahu, Hawai’i. Viral abundance was correlated with select environmental drivers and prokaryote abundance, while non-metric multidimensional scaling was used to determine the key environmental drivers of the viral community assemblage. The water column contained high concentrations of VLPs (5.98 × 107 ml-1) and prokaryotes (3.11 × 106 ml-1), consistent with the considerable anthropogenic impacts at this location. In comparison, the SML contained lower concentrations of VLPs (2.61 × 107 ml-1) and prokaryotes (2.08 × 106 ml-1); of note, the densities of viruses and prokaryotes in the SML were strongly coupled while those in the reef water were not. VLP density in the water column varied spatially across the reef, with the most sheltered site and the only one not situated on the reef crest having a greater VLP density than the other sites. Temporal variations in the density of microbes (i.e. viruses and prokaryotes) in the reef water were pronounced, while in the SML microbial densities remained constant. However, no specific environmental drivers of this variability could be identified. In contrast, temperature and water quality were correlated with shifts in the morphological diversity of VLPs across the reef. Small (< 50 nm) polyhedral/spherical VLPs were dominant, and were positively correlated to chlorophyll-a concentration when in the SML. In this same habitat, Fuselloviridae-like VLPs, filamentous VLPs and bead-shaped VLPs were positively correlated to temperature. In the reef water a different pattern was apparent: large (> 100 nm) Podoviridae-like VLPs and elongate Myoviridae-like VLPs, as well as lemon-shaped VLPs of both size classes showed positive associations with turbidity, while large filamentous VLPs, Geminiviridae-like VLPs and rod-shaped VLPs were positively associated with temperature. These results demonstrate that the viral community of Coconut Island’s reef is highly diverse, and subject to spatial and temporal change, especially in the water column. However, while the environmental drivers of viral diversity were partly elucidated, we are still a long way from understanding the drivers of viral abundance. More detailed study, both spatially and temporally, of the CIMR environment is required, as is comprehensive molecular analysis of the viral community of Kane’ohe Bay. Only then can we begin to understand the importance of viruses to the health and function of this, and other reef sites.</p>