Factors Affecting the Perception and Practice of Iranian Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Pastoralists in Regard to Biosecurity Practices in Sheep and Goat Farms: A Cross-Sectional and Prospective Study

Preventing the spread of diseases between and within farms (biosecurity) is essential for minimizing animal mortality and morbidity, as well as for reducing the risk of spread of zoonotic diseases. These effects are even greater in countries such as Iran, which have to deal with multiple ongoing epidemics of infectious disease. However, there is currently no published information about biosecurity practices on sheep and goat farms in Iran in published research. The aim of this study was to collect such information and to identify some of the factors affecting biosecurity practices. Data were gathered using a checklist and in-depth interviews with 99 nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists. Regression analysis was used to identify the relationships between the collected variables and the biosecurity scores. The results showed that neither within- nor between-farm disease prevention measures were appropriately applied on most farms (median total score of total biosecurity was 37.3/90; Q1 = 29.0 and Q3 = 44.7). Almost all the farmers reported slaughtering animals on farms and nobody properly disposed of the bodies of the dead animals. Additionally, the majority of the participants did not disinfect the umbilical cords of newborns. Of the collected variables, the annual mortality rate was associated with most within-farm biosecurity practices. The increase in annual mortality rates was associated with the regular cleaning of troughs (p = 0.03), preventing feed and water from being contaminated by urine and feces (p = 0.02), providing a clean and dry place for animals to rest (p = 0.05) and disinfecting the navel cord (p = 0.03). The results of this survey suggest that there is a clear need for extension programs to enhance Iranian and sheep and goat farmers’ perceptions and practices regarding biosecurity measures.

Geographical Distribution and Genetic Diversity of the Banana Fusarium Wilt Fungus in Laos and Vietnam

Fusarium wilt, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), poses a major threat to global banana production. The tropical race 4 (TR4) variant of Foc is a highly virulent form with a large host range, and severely affects Cavendish bananas. Foc TR4 was recently observed within the Greater Mekong Subregion, after Chinese private companies expanded Cavendish production to the region. In this study, extensive surveys conducted across Laos and Vietnam show that Foc TR4 is still mainly constricted to the northern regions of these countries and is limited to Cavendish cultivation settings. In Laos, Foc TR4 is associated with large-scale Cavendish plantations owned by or involved with Chinese companies through which infected planting material could have been imported. In Vietnam, mostly small-holder Cavendish farmers and backyard gardens were affected by Foc TR4. In Vietnam, no direct link is found with Chinese growers, and it is expected the pathogen mainly spreads through local and regional movement of infected planting materials. Foc TR4 was not recorded on banana cultivars other than Cavendish. The extensively cultivated ‘Pisang Awak’ cultivar was solely infected by VCGs belonging to Foc race 1 and 2, with a high occurrence of VCG 0123 across Laos, and of VCG 0124/5 in Vietnam. Substantial diversity of Foc VCGs was recorded (VCGs 0123, 0124/5, 01218 and 01221) from northern to southern regions in both countries, suggesting that Fusarium wilt is well established in the region. Interviews with farmers indicated that the local knowledge of Fusarium wilt epidemiology and options for disease management was limited. Clear communication efforts on disease epidemiology and management with emphasis on biosecurity practices need to be improved in order to prevent further spread of Foc TR4 to mixed variety smallholder settings.

Live Wild Bird Trade and Sellers’ Biosecurity Risks in Kaduna State, Nigeria

Aims: The first highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 outbreak in Africa occurred in Kaduna State, Nigeria and despite possible introduction of H5N1 virus into Nigeria through wild birds; few studies have been undertaken on the risk of live wild bird trade and sellers” biosecurity practices on introduction, spread and maintenance of diseases in the country. This study assessed wild bird trade and sellers” biosecurity risk towards disease surveillance and control in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Place and Duration of Study: Live wild bird markets in Kaduna State, Nigeria between March, and May 2012. Methodology: Live wildbird markets(LWBMs) biosecurity and sellers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices on HPAI was assessed using biosecurity checklist and structured questionnaire, respectively. Wild bird trade was studied through a market survey in LWBMs. Results: All sellers were male and their main source of income was the wild bird trade. Some sellers (22.7%) would report sick birds only when attempted treatment fails. Sellers kept poultry at home (78.9%) with 100% allowing poultry–wild birds contact. Over 31.6% sellers do not wash hands with soap after handling birds. About 86.4% sellers heard of AI with 84.2% hearing from radio. No sellers knew any HPAI clinical sign though 21.1% knew HPAI affects human beings and none believes HPAI affects human beings. Sellers would report HPAI outbreak to reduce losses (38.9%). None of the LWBMs was fenced with birds tied and allowed to move in 25% of LWBMs. Cages were wood/metal while fenced pens constructed from wood/wire mesh with un-cemented floor. No LWBM sourced birds from one reliable source neither were birds separated by species. In 50% of LWBMs, cages were stacked without paper or other materials lined within cages. No LWBM either stored feed in rodent proof containers or had a rodent control program. Other livestock were sold in 75% of LWBMs. Free flying birds interact with wild birds in 75% of LWBMs while free range poultry – wild bird interaction occurred in 25% of LWBMs. No seller wore protective clothing in any LWBM. All markets practice regular cleaning of cages and pens though none disinfects cages regularly. All LWBMs dispose dead birds properly by burning or burying though 25% dispose wild bird manure improperly. Over 75.9% of biosecurity features in LWBMs were risky with 76.2% being risky biosecurity practices and 80% (17/21) due to poor LWBM infrastructures. Food (31.8%), traditional medicine (45.5%) and pets (77.3%) were reported wild birds uses. There was high demand for birds of prey during election years. White stork (11.42%) and geese (9.94%) were the main birds on sale. Threatened and rear wild bird species were being traded in the LWBMs. Over 45% of birds were sourced from 9 foreign countries with majority coming from Chad. Bird prices range was ₦300 ($1.9) to ₦125,000 ($781). Mammals and reptiles were also sold in LWBMs with prices from ₦500 ($3.1) to ₦ 1.2million ($7500). Wild birds on sale in the four LWBMs were valued at ₦6,575,300 ($41,100) comprising of 71.4% of total value of animals (₦9,207,300) on sale. Conclusion: Sellers’ biosecurity practices was poor with high biosecurity risk due to low-risk perception. Biosecurity in LWBMs in Kaduna State was poor with high risk to introduction, spread and maintenance of HPAI. Wild bird trade in Kaduna State is linked to the global trade and could be a source for disease introduction into Nigeria. There is need for sellers to be trained on HPAI and other emerging infectious diseases and routine surveillance of EIDs in LWBMs. The wild bird trade should be legalized and regulated.

Perceptions of Biosecurity-Based Accreditation in the Plant Trade: A UK Example

It is widely acknowledged that a major threat to tree health biosecurity comes from trade, particularly through the importation of containerised live plants and associated growing media. Nurseries can collectively play a key role in mitigating pests and diseases through attention to their daily practices (e.g., procuring plants, storage and management). More widespread adoption of best practices in the sector could be promoted through the introduction of a UK-wide accreditation scheme. However, the success of such a scheme would depend not only on its uptake by nurseries but also on the attitudes of key consumers in the plant supply chain. To date, the perspectives of the nursery sector on the feasibility of plant biosecurity, as well as the sensitivity of these sectors to consumer opinion, have remained under-researched. Using the COM-B [Capability, Opportunity, Motivation—Behaviour] model as a framework, we draw on qualitative results to assess the appetite for a hypothetical accreditation scheme amongst UK nurseries and the capability, opportunities and motivations to enhance their biosecurity practices. Nineteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with plant nurseries and 22 with their consumers. Overall a plant health accreditation scheme should have actions that are: (1) viable within the confines of the site and supply chain; (2) affordable where the benefits of changes/improvements outweigh the costs; (3) beneficial in that they promote biosecurity; (4) attractive to consumers looking to purchase products from accredited nurseries; (5) fair and inclusive where everyone has responsibility for biosecurity; (6) transparent with the scheme involving a strong monitoring and auditing component. This study provides important insights that will feed into the development of plant biosecurity-focussed accreditation or certification.

Infectious Bronchitis Virus (Gammacoronavirus) in Poultry Farming: Vaccination, Immune Response and Measures for Mitigation

Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) poses significant financial and biosecurity challenges to the commercial poultry farming industry. IBV is the causative agent of multi-systemic infection in the respiratory, reproductive and renal systems, which is similar to the symptoms of various viral and bacterial diseases reported in chickens. The avian immune system manifests the ability to respond to subsequent exposure with an antigen by stimulating mucosal, humoral and cell-mediated immunity. However, the immune response against IBV presents a dilemma due to the similarities between the different serotypes that infect poultry. Currently, the live attenuated and killed vaccines are applied for the control of IBV infection; however, the continual emergence of IB variants with rapidly evolving genetic variants increases the risk of outbreaks in intensive poultry farms. This review aims to focus on IBV challenge–infection, route and delivery of vaccines and vaccine-induced immune responses to IBV. Various commercial vaccines currently have been developed against IBV protection for accurate evaluation depending on the local situation. This review also highlights and updates the limitations in controlling IBV infection in poultry with issues pertaining to antiviral therapy and good biosecurity practices, which may aid in establishing good biorisk management protocols for its control and which will, in turn, result in a reduction in economic losses attributed to IBV infection.

Assessment of Biosecurity Measures and Distribution of Daily Live Bird ‎Markets in Four North-Western States of Nigeria ‎

Maintenance of strict biosecurity measures is essential in preventing disease spread from Live Bird Markets (LBMs) which serve as a major intermingling area for poultry from different sources. This study assessed the Biosecurity measures and spatial distribution of daily Live Bird Markets of four North-western States in Nigeria. Closed ended questionnaires were administered in 35 daily LBMs in Kaduna, Kano, Katsina and Zamfara states and identification of disinfectants used in the LBMs were noted. Swab samples of birds’ cages in the LBMs were taken for E. coli isolation. The live bird managers and marketers were all male (100%) across all the four states. Only 6(17%) out of the 35 LBMs had high biosecurity level, 69% had a moderate biosecurity level and 5(14%) were graded as low. Of the 400 Live bird marketers administered questionnaires, only 71 (18%) employ good biosecurity practices and 305(76%) were graded as fair and remaining 24(6%) as poor. Majority of the LBMs were located within human settlements without any form of barrier. There were seven main types of disinfectants identified across the all LBMs. Esherichia coli was isolated from 1(17%) LBM among the 6(17%) LBMs that were identified to have and use disinfectant. From the remaining 29(83%) LBMs, E.coli was isolated from only 5(17%) despite lacking in use of disinfectant by these LBMs. Live bird marketers should be educated on the need to adhere to biosecurity measures and practices.